Promoting Wound Healing by Administering a Prostaglandin E and Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor

ABSTRACT

A method of promoting healing of a wound in a patient, the method comprising administering to the patient (i) a prostaglandin E (PGE) or an agonist thereof and/or an agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GMCSF) or a derivative thereof. Use of (i) a PGE or an agonist thereof and/or an agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof in the preparation of a medicament for promoting healing of a wound in a patient. A wound dressing, bandage or fibrin glue comprising (i) a PGE or an agonist thereof and/or an agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof.

The present invention relates to therapeutic compositions methods and uses; in particular it relates to methods and compositions for wound healing.

The process of wound healing is generally considered to consist of three phases: the inflammatory/exudate phase, the proliferative phase, and the differentiation phase. The first of these phases, lasting until approximately the fourth day, is critical and comprises prevention of haemorrhage, release of cytokines and permeability enhancers (leading to local oedema) and cellular ingress. The main cell type to arrive first is the neutrophil which secretes VEGF and is angiogenic (Gargett et al, 2001; Mueller et al, 2000). The main neutrophil attracting agent CXCL8 (IL-8) is also implicated in angiogenesis, although not necessarily directly (Strieter et al, 1992; Strieter et al, 1995). Angiogenesis is critical to wound repair and although neovascularisation is associated with a later stage of the repair process, the delayed effects of CXCL8 are considered essential (Engelhardt et al, 1998).

Neutrophil infiltration is accompanied by a more prolonged increase in macrophage numbers. The expression of CCL2 (MCP-1) is elevated in the first 24 hours after experimental wounding and this is associated with the influx of blood monocytes which are differentiated to macrophages once they have arrived at the site of damage (Engelhardt et al, 1998). This has been confirmed in the CCL2 knockout mouse in which wound repair is deficient (Low et al, 2001).

The chemokine CCL-3 (MIP-1α) is also likely to have an important role in wound repair as seen in a mouse model (DiPietro, 1998) although the knockout mouse does not have any obvious deficiency in repair (Low et al, 2001).

The chemokine CXCL7 (NAP-2), connective tissue activating peptide III (CTAPIII), and beta-thromboglobulin (BTG) are each derived from a common precursor, platelet basic protein (PBP), by post-translational proteolysis. CXCL7 and CTAPIII are both involved in the early stages of wound healing (Proudfoot et al, 1997) and BTG is highly chemotactic for fibroblasts, again important in wound healing (Senior et al, 1983).

Chemokines are usually regarded as pro-inflammatory. However, in an immune response to an insult, chemokines induce the relevant phagocytic and cytokine-secreting cells and play a vital role in both debridement and wound repair. prostaglandin E (PGE) is likely to play multiple roles in its interactions with chemokines since PGE synergises with IL-8 (CXCL8) in attracting neutrophils into tissue (Colditz, 1990; Foster et al, 1989). In chemokine synthesis, PGE is reported as inhibiting the lipopolysaccharide induced synthesis of CCL3 and CCL4 (Jing et al, 2004) and as such PGE might be expected to have inhibitory actions in chemokine synthesis.

Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GMCSF) has an important role in granulocyte and macrophage lineage maturation. GMCSF has been proposed as both a treatment agent and a target for treatment. Recombinant human GMCSF has been used to treat some cancers and to promote haematopoietic reconstitution following bone marrow transplantation (Leukine® Package Insert Approved Text, February 1998, and Buchsel, et al, 2002). By contrast, other recent reports describe GMCSF as being a potential target for treatment of inflammatory and immune diseases (Hamilton, 2002) and asthma Ritz et al, 2002).

The inventor has previously demonstrated a compelling synergism between GMCSF and prostaglandins that raise cAMP levels in monocytes, such as PGE, in the stimulation of IL-10 synthesis and inhibition of IL-12 (Grant et al, 2005; WO 2004/035083). This synergism was due to the ability of PGE to raise cAMP levels via the EP2 and/or the EP4 receptors. The environment of high IL-10 and low IL-12, provided by suitably programmed monocyte/macrophages in response to the action of PGE and GMCSF, induces immunological tolerance. In addition, the inventor has previously demonstrated that this combination of PGE and GMCSF, which induces immunological tolerance, together with stem cells can be used for a variety of therapeutic purposes (Grant et al, 2005; WO 2005/044298).

Sheibanie et al (2004) reported a synergism between PGE and GMCSF in dendritic cells and suggested a combined therapy for autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. This paper deals with the effects of the combination on IL-23 which, although a relatively newly-discovered cytokine, appears to be more like IL-12 than anything else.

Because of the huge concentrations of E series prostaglandins in human seminal plasma, it has been recognised that these agents are likely to be important contributors to immune programming of cells of the female reproductive tract after semen deposition. Clearly spermatozoa are critical to the survival of the species and thus evolutionary pressure would have ensured that no fatal immune response was directed against these allogeneic invaders. Indeed the immune recognition and acceptance of spermatozoa may also facilitate adequate colonisation of the maternal blood vessels by the invading trophoblast (Robillard et al, 1994). The immunological acceptance of spermatozoa may have been particularly difficult when, at some point in evolution, repeated or chronic infections appeared in either male or female the genital tract. A more subtle action of prostaglandins (from semen and elsewhere) may involve interaction with GMCSF, produced by epithelial cells and cells of the lamina propria. In the case of semen deposition, GMCSF synthesis may well be stimulated by the actions of TGFβ (Robertson & Seamark, 1990) which is found in high levels in human seminal plasma.

In a continuation of these immunological fertility studies, the inventor studied the effects of a combination of human seminal plasma (HSP) and GMCSF on the expression of 32,800 genes in a monocyte cell model (ML1 cells). Unexpectedly, the inventor found that there is a marked stimulation of chemokine release from monocyte cells. Surprisingly, the three genes with the greatest increases m expression were CXCL8, CCL2 and pro-PBP (see Table 2). The inventor repeated the microarray expression studies using PGE and GMCSF, and found a similar pattern of stimulation of chemokine release from monocyte cells. In this study each of CXCL8, CCL2 and pro-PBP were within the top eight genes with increased expression levels (Table 3). The increased expression of CXCL8, CCL2 and pro-PBP was confirmed by RT-PCR and protein release studies to result from the synergistic effect of PGE and GMCSF (see Example 1).

Table 2 also shows the relative lack of response to the cAMP elevating agent forskolin in combination with GMCSF (column 3 cf column 5). Thus, the increase in expression of CXCL8, CCL2 and PBP is not primarily due to an increase in intracellular cAMP and, therefore, appears to be the result of a different mechanism to that which causes an increase in expression of the pro-tolerant cytokine IL-10 (WO 2004/035083, WO 2005/044298).

The pattern of chemokine induction by PGE and GMCSF resembles the end of the first phase of wound repair and thus the inventor has realised in a rat model of wound healing, that the combination of PGE and GMCSF may be used to accelerate or promote wound repair. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the inventor believes that a PGE and GMCSF polarise monocytes into a pro-wound healing phenotype characterised by increased CXCL8; CCL2 and CXCL7 release. In addition, the effects of PGE and GMCSF are prolonged and continue after the removal of these agents, thus the cells are selectively differentiated.

In particular, slow healing wounds, such as those in areas of the skin that are poorly vascularised, could be accelerated or promoted by the local administration of PGE and GMCSF. Also, wounds in those patients, such as the elderly, who have a less-than-optimal ability to secrete cytokines such as CXCL8, CCL2 and CXCL7, thus not attracting leukocytes and depriving the wounded tissue of healing-inducing cytokines, would benefit from this treatment. Indeed there is an application for accelerating wound healing in a wider range of applications including skin wounds and surgical operation wounds in the otherwise healthy patient. It is also believed to be possible to accelerate or promote wound repair in the case of gastrointestinal damage such as that associated with ulcers or Crohn's disease.

As far as the inventor is aware, there has never been any suggestion that a combination of a PGE and GMCSF could be used to stimulate CXCL8, CCL2 and PBP-CXCL7 expression and/or release in monocytic cells, and there has been no suggestion of any treatment regime using this combination to stimulate CXCL8, CCL2 and PBP-CXCL7.

Furthermore, as far as the inventor is aware, there has never been any suggestion that the combination of a PGE and GMCSF might be therapeutically useful in wound healing.

In addition, the inventor has shown that the combination of PGE and GMCSF increases the expression of COX-2, CD14 and the calgranulins A and B in monocyte cells. COX-2 is believed to be involved in maintaining the pro-wound healing phenotype after removal of the PGE and GMCSF, while CD14 is a differentiation marker and is evidence of a more differentiated state. The calgranulins (S100 proteins) are also relevant to wound healing as they are natural antimicrobial agents, and a natural antimicrobial activity would greatly assist wound healing. Furthermore, the inventor now has provided evidence that the combination of PGE and GMCSF promotes the expression of genes involved in angiogenesis and Notch signalling, both of which are elements of the wound healing process.

A first aspect of the invention provides a method of promoting healing of a wound in a patient comprising administering to the patient (i) a prostaglandin E (PGE) or an agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration, or effect of a PGE and (ii) granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GMCSF) or a derivative thereof.

By “promoting healing of a wound” we mean that the PGE or agonist thereof or agent which increases the local concentration, or effect, of a PGE, and the GMCSF or derivative thereof provide a cytokine environment at the site of the wound that accelerates or promotes healing of the wound. In other words, the PGE or agonist thereof or agent that increases the local concentration, or effect, of PGE and the GMCSF or derivative thereof stimulate the release of cytokines such as CXCL8, CCL2 and CXCL7 that are necessary for the first phase of wound healing, thereby promoting healing of a wound. The first phase of wound healing lasts until approximately the fourth day. Therefore, by accelerating the healing of the wound within the first four days, wound healing would be promoted.

Furthermore, leukocytes attracted by the combination of the PGE or agonist thereof and the GMCSF or derivative thereof will also be further differentiated by the PGE-rich environment, leading to reduced or altered activation of neutrophils, which is advantageous for wound healing.

By a prostaglandin E (PGE) we mean prostaglandin E₁ (PGE₁) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂). PGE₂ is more preferred. PGE₂ is commercially available, for example from Pharmacia and Upjohn as Prostin E2.

The PGE agonist may be, but need not be, a prostanoid which binds an EP receptor, such as the EP2 or EP4 receptor. Since the combination of GMCSF and forskolin, a stimulator of adenyl cyclase and the protein kinase A pathway, is quite inefficient at increasing the levels of the pro-wound healing cytokines shown in Table 2, the effect of PGE and GMCSF is not due to raised cAMP levels alone. Thus, the PGE or agonist thereof may not necessarily act via the EP2 or EP4 receptors, which are the receptors normally used by PGEs. Without being by bound by theory, the inventor believes that the PGE may be acting on more than one EP receptor at a time (including the EP 1, EP2 and EP4 receptors), or via a different prostaglandin receptor, or at the EP2 or EP4 receptors but via a different pathway.

By a PGE agonist we mean any compound which acts as a PGE agonist on a prostaglandin E receptor, such as the EP1, EP2, EP3 or EP4 receptors. It is preferred that the PGE agonist is an analogue of PGE₂. Synthetic analogues include those modified at position 15 or 16 by the addition of a methyl group or those where the hydroxyl has been transposed from position 15 to position 16. Preferred examples of analogues of PGE include 16,16-dimethyl PGE and 19-hydroxy PGE (both 19-OH PGE₁ and 19-OH PGE₂). For the avoidance of doubt, the term PGE includes naturally-occurring PGEs as well as synthetic PGE analogues.

Suitable PGEs or agonists thereof include dinoprostone (sold as Propess by Ferring in Europe and Forest in the USA; sold as Prostin E2 by Pharmacia), misoprostol (which is sold as Cytotec by Searle and Pharmacia), alprostadil (which is sold as Caverject by Pharmacia and Viridal by Schwarz and MUSE by AstraZeneca) and limaprost.

Misoprostol is a PGE analogue which has EP2 and EP3 agonist effects. Its chemical structure is (±) methyl 11α, 16-dihydroxy-16-methyl-9-oxoprost-13-enoate.

Suitable PGE agonists are described in EP 1 097 922 and EP 1 114 816, incorporated herein by reference. Other suitable PGE agonists may also include any of the 19-OH PGE analogues described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,127,612, incorporated herein by reference.

By an agent which increases the local concentration of PGE, we mean an agent that enhances the synthesis of PGE, for example by enzyme activation or by increasing the local concentration of PGE precursors, any agent which inhibits the catabolism of PGE, or an agent which serves to attract PGE to the wound site. By an agent which increases the effect of PGE we include an agent which increases the number of PGE receptors.

Suitable agents which enhance the synthesis of PGE include activators of cyclooxygenases 1 and 2 and activators of phospholipase which generates arachidonic acid—the precursor of all prostaglandins. Suitable agents which inhibit the catabolism of PGE include inhibitors of prostaglandin dehydrogenases (PGDHs). It is preferred that the agent is an inhibitor of PGDH. Suitable inhibitors of PGDH include epidermal growth factor (EGF) (Mann et al, 2006) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonists (Cho and Tai, 2002). The involvement of PPAP agonists in wound healing has recently been documented. Specifically, Pioglitazone has been shown to exhibit gastroprotective and ulcer healing properties (Brzozowski et al, 2005). In addition, EGF has been demonstrated to accelerate wound healing (Tanaka et al, 2005) and has been shown to enhance healing of diabetic foot ulcers (Hong et al, 2006).

By “GMCSF” we include the gene product of the human GMCSF gene and naturally occurring variants thereof. The nucleotide and the amino acid sequence of human GMCSF is found in Genbank Accession No. NM_(—)000758, and in FIG. 1 (SEQ ID NOs: 1 and 2, respectively). Some naturally occurring variants of GMCSF are also listed in NM_(—)000758. GMCSF is also known as colony stimulating factor 2 (CSF2).

The invention includes the use of a derivative of GMCSF that retains the biological activity of wild-type GMCSF, i.e. that stimulates the production of granulocytes and macrophages from their progenitor cells, and which, in the presence of PGE, synergistically causes monocytes to express CXCL-8 (IL-8).

By “derivative” of GMCSF we include a fragment, fusion or modification or analogue thereof, or a fusion or modification of a fragment thereof.

By “fragment” of GMCSF we mean any portion of the glycoprotein that stimulates the production of granulocytes and macrophages from their progenitor cells and which in the presence of PGE causes monocytes to express CXCL-8 (IL-8). Typically, the fragment has at least 30% of the activity of full length GMCSF. It is more preferred if the fragment has at least 50%, preferably at least 70% and more preferably at least 90% of the activity of full length GMCSF. Most preferably, the fragment has 100% or more of the activity of full length GMCSF.

The derivatives may be made using protein chemistry techniques for example using partial proteolysis (either exolytically or endolytically), or by de novo synthesis. Alternatively, the derivatives may be made by recombinant DNA technology. Suitable techniques for cloning, manipulation, modification and expression of nucleic acids, and purification of expressed proteins, are well known in the art and are described for example in Sambrook et al (2001) “Molecular Cloning, a Laboratory Manual”, 3^(rd) edition, Sambrook et al (eds), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., USA, incorporated herein by reference.

The invention also includes modifications of full length GMCSF, or a fragment thereof, that stimulate the production of granulocytes and macrophages from their progenitor cells and which in the presence of PGE cause monocytes to express CXCL-8 (IL-8).

Such modifications include deglycosylating the glycoprotein either fully or partially. Other modifications include full length GMCSF, or a fragment thereof, having a different glycosylation pattern from that found in naturally occurring human GMCSF.

Other modifications of full length GMCSF, or a fragment thereof, include amino acid insertions, deletions and substitutions, either conservative or non-conservative, at one or more positions. Such modifications may be called analogues of GMCSF. By “conservative substitutions” is intended combinations such as Gly, Ala; Val, Ile, Leu; Asp, Glu; Asn, Gln; Ser, Thr; Lys, Arg; and Phe, Tyr. Such modifications may be made using the methods of protein engineering and site-directed mutagenesis, as described in Sambrook et al 2001, supra. Preferably, the modified GMCSF or modified GMCSF fragment retains at least 90% sequence identity with full length GMCSF, or the respective GMCSF fragment. More preferably, the modified GMCSF or modified GMCSF fragment has at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94% or 95% sequence identity, and yet more preferably at least 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity with full length GMCSF, or the respective GMCSF fragment. Preferably, the modified GMCSF or modified GMCSF fragment retains at least 30% of the activity of full length GMCSF. It is more preferred if the modified GMCSF or GMCSF derivative has at least 50%, preferably at least 70% and more preferably at least 90% of the activity of full length GMCSF. Most preferably, the modified GMCSF or modified GMCSF fragment has 100% or more of the activity of full length GMCSF.

The invention also includes the use of a fusion of full length GMCSF, or a fragment thereof, to another compound. Preferably, the fusion retains at least 30% of the activity of full length GMCSF. It is more preferred if the fusion has at least 50%, preferably at least 70% and more preferably at least 90% of the activity of full length GMCSF. Most preferably, the fusion has 100%, or more, of the activity of full length GMCSF.

GMCSF and analogues thereof are described in the following publications, each of which is incorporated herein by reference: U.S. Pat. No. 5,229,496 (Deeley et al); U.S. Pat. No. 5,391,485 (Deeley et al); U.S. Pat. No. 5,393,870 (Deeley et al); U.S. Pat. No. 5,602,007 (Dunn et al); Wong et al, 1985; Lee et al, 1985; Cantrell et al, 1985; and Miyatake et al, 1985.

While it is preferred that GMCSF is human GMCSF as defined above, by GMCSF we also include GMCSF from other species. It is appreciated that for applications in which GMCSF is administered to a non-human subject, the GMCSF is preferably from the same species as the subject. If the GMCSF is administered to a human subject, the GMCSF is preferably human GMCSF or a derivative thereof.

Suitable GMCSF for the practice of this invention can be obtained from Peprotech EC Ltd., 29 Margravine Road, London, W6 8LL, catalogue number 300-03.

A preferred GMCSF for the practice of this invention is sargramostim, the proper name for yeast-derived recombinant human GMCSF, sold under the trade name Leuidne® produced by Immunex, Inc. Leukine® is a recombinant human GMCSF produced in a S. cerevisiae expression system. Leukine® is a glycoprotein of 127 amino acids characterised by 3 primary molecular species having molecular masses of 19,500, 16,800 and 15,500 Daltons. The amino acid sequence of Leukine® differs from natural human GMCSF by a substitution of leucine at position 23, and the carbohydrate moiety may be different from the native protein. Leukine® is suitable for subcutaneous or intravenous administration (Leukine® Package Insert Approved Text, February 1998).

Another GMCSF suitable for the practice of this invention is molgramostim, the proper name for E. coli-derived recombinant human GMCSF, sold under the trade name Leucomax® (Schering-Plough). Leukomax® is a recombinant human GMCSF produced in an E. coli expression system. Leucomax® is a water soluble, non-glycosylated protein of 127 amino acids having a molecular mass of 14,477 Daltons. The amino acid sequence of Leucomax® differs from natural human GMCSF by a substitution of isoleucine at position 100. Leucomax® is available as a powder which, once reconstituted, is suitable for subcutaneous or intravenous administration (Leucomax® Data Sheet, November 2002).

A further GMCSF suitable for the practice of this invention is regramostim, the proper name for CHO-derived recombinant human GMCSF. Regramostim is a recombinant human GMCSF of 127 amino acids that is more highly glycosylated than sargramostim.

Typically, if the GMCSF or derivative thereof is produced recombinantly, it is purified away from the cells in which it is produced. Thus, in an embodiment of the invention, cells are not administered to the patient, i.e. there are no cells present in the therapeutic composition that is administered to promote healing of the wound.

It is preferred if the GMCSF or derivative thereof is administered to the patient as a polypeptide (whether or not glycoyslated). In a less preferred embodiment, the GMCSF or derivative thereof may be administered to the patient in the form of a polynucleotide that encodes the GMCSF or derivative thereof. Alternatively, the GMCSF or derivative thereof is not administered to the patient in the form of a polynucleotide that encodes the GMCSF or derivative thereof.

Unless the context indicates otherwise, wherever the term “GMCSF” is used, a derivative as herein defined is included.

Suitable doses of the PGE or agonist thereof to be administered typically range from 0.01 to 100 μg. Preferably, the amount of the PGE or agonist thereof ranges from 0.05 to 50 μg. Typically, amounts of 0.1 to 5 μg, or 5 to 20 μg, or 20 to 50 μg may be administered. Suitable doses of the agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE may be determined by the physical. Typically they would be in the range of 0.01 to 100 μg.

Suitable doses of the GMCSF or the derivative thereof to be administered typically range from 0.01 to 400 μg. Preferably, the amount of the GMCSF or the derivative thereof ranges from 0.05 μg to 200 μg. Typically, amounts of 0.1 to 5 μg, or 5 to 50 μg, or 50 to 200 μg may be administered.

Preferably, one or both of the PGE or agonist thereof or agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and the GMCSF or derivative thereof are administered locally to the patient at the site of the wound. Most preferably, both the PGE or agonist thereof and the GMCSF or derivative thereof are administered locally to the patient at the site of the wound.

In a preferred embodiment, the wound to be treated is a sterile wound, i.e. the wound is not infected. If the wound is infected, the wound may be sterilised, for example by the administration of an antimicrobial agent. Clearly, however, the use of an antimicrobial agent would also serve to prevent infection of a sterile wound being treated.

Thus, typically, the method may further comprise administering an antimicrobial agent to the patient. In an embodiment, the antimicrobial agent is administered locally to the patient at the site of the wound. Suitable antimicrobial agents include antibacterial agents, antifungal agents and antiviral agents, as is well known to the person of skill in the art. Antibacterial agents include, for example natural and synthetic penicillins and cephalosporins, sulphonamides, erythromycin, kanamycin, azithromycin, clarithromycin, roxithromycin, tetracycline, oxytetracycline, chloramphenicol, rifanpicin, and including gentamicin, ampicillin, benzypenicillin, benethamine penicillin, benzathine penicillin, phenethicillin, phenoxy-methyl penicillin, procaine penicillin, cloxacillin, flucloxacillin, methicillin sodium, amoxicillin, bacampicillin hydrochloride, ciclacillin, mezlocillin, pivampicillin, talampicillin hydrochloride, carfecillin sodium, piperacillin, ticarcillin, mecillinam, pirnecillinan, cefaclor, cefadroxil, cefotaxime, cefoxitin, cefsulodin sodium, ceftazidime, ceftizoxime, cefuroxime, cephalexin, cephalothin, cephamandole, cephazolin, cephradine, cefurome, latamoxef disodium, aztreonam, glycylcyclines, chortetracycliie hydrochloride, clomocycline sodium, demeclocydine hydrochloride, doxycychne, lymecycline, minocycline, oxytetracycline, amikacin, framycetin sulphate, neomycin sulphate, netilmicin, tobramycin, colistin, sodium fusidate, fupirocin, polymyxin B sulphate, spectinomycin, vancomycin, teicoplanin, calcium sulphaloxate, sulphametopyrazine, sulphadiazine, sulphadimidine, sulphaguanidine, sulphaurea, capreomycin, metronidazole, timidazole, cinoxacin, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, nitrofurantoin, hexamine, streptomycin, carbenicillin, colistimethate, polymyxin B, furazolidone, nalidixic acid, trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole, clindamycin, lincomycin, cycloserine, isoniazid, ethambutol, ethionamide, pyrazinamide, meropenem and imipenem and the like; antifungal agents include, for example miconazole, ketoconazole, itraconazole, fluconazole, amphotericin, flucytosine, griseofulvin, natamycin, nystatin, and the like; and antiviral agents include agents such as acyclovir, AZT, ddI, amantadine hydrochloride, inosine pranobex, vidarabine, and the like.

The method may also include administering an analgesic agent or an anesthetic agent locally to the patient at the site of the wound. Suitable analgesic agents include methylsalicylate, salicylic acid, dyclonine and aloe vera. Suitable local anesthetic agents include benzocaine, lidocaine, xylocaine or butamben picrate.

In a preferred embodiment, the PGE or agonist thereof or agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and the GMCSF or derivative thereof, together with any of the other optional active agents described herein, are administered as a pharmaceutical composition containing a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent or excipient (including combinations thereof). The carrier, diluent or excipient must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the active agents of the invention and not deleterious to the recipients thereof. Typically, the carriers will be water or saline which will be sterile and pyrogen free. Acceptable carriers or diluents for therapeutic use are well known in the pharmaceutical art, and are described, for example, in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Co. (Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy 21^(st) Edition, 2005, ISBN: 0-7817-4673-6). The choice of pharmaceutical carrier, excipient or diluent can be selected with regard to the intended route of administration and standard pharmaceutical practice.

The pharmaceutical compositions may comprise as, or in addition to, the carrier, excipient or diluent any suitable binder(s), lubricant(s), suspending agent(s), coating agent(s), or solubilising agent(s). Preservatives, stabilisers, dyes and even flavoring agents may be provided in the pharmaceutical composition. Examples of preservatives include sodium benzoate, sorbic acid and esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid. Antioxidants and suspending agents may be also used.

Typically, the method may be used for promoting the healing of an external wound.

In this embodiment, the method may further comprise administering a skin permeability enhancer locally to the patient at the site of the wound. By a skin permeability enhancer we mean a dispersion agent or an agent which allows for increased transdermal transfer, delivery or penetration of the active agent(s). Suitable skin permeability enhancers such a dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) and the like. Suitable enhancers are ones which are compatible with the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the GMCSF or derivative thereof (e.g. are solvents thereof).

In an embodiment of the invention, the PGE or agonist thereof or agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and the GMCSF or derivative thereof, and optionally the antimicrobial agent and/or the analgesic agent and/or the anesthetic agent and/or the skin permeability enhancer, are administered as the sole active agents for promoting the healing of the wound

In general, any or all of the above active agents (i.e., the PGE or agonist thereof or agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, the GMCSF or derivative thereof, and the optional skin permeability enhancer, antimicrobial agent, analgesic agent and anesthetic agent) may be administered topically for wound treatment and for promoting healthy skin development. The active agents may be administered topically by any means either directly or indirectly to the selected tissue as a spray, foam, powder, lotion, cream, gel, paste or solution. The terms lotion, cream, gel and paste include viscous spreadable compositions and ointments such as are often applied directly to the skin or spread onto a bandage or wound dressing material. The active agents may be covalently attached, stably adsorbed or otherwise applied to a skin covering or wound dressing material. To facilitate healing after surgery, the active agents may be the applied directly to target tissues or to prosthetic devices. The compositions can be administered by aerosol, as a foam or as a mist along with other agents directly onto the skin or wound.

Suitable concentrations of the PGE or agonist thereof in the pharmaceutical formulation typically range from 0.01 to 100 μg/ml. Preferably, the concentration of the PGE or agonist thereof ranges from 0.05 to 50 μg/ml. More preferably, concentrations of 0.1 to 1 μg/ml, or 1 to 10 μg/ml, or 10 to 20 μg/ml may be employed. Suitable concentrations of the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE would typically range from 0.01 to 100 μg/ml.

Suitable concentrations of the GMCSF or the derivative thereof in the pharmaceutical formulation typically range from 0.01 to 50 μg/ml. Preferably, the concentration of the GMCSF or the derivative thereof ranges from 0.05 to 25 μg/ml. More preferably, concentrations of 0.1 to 1 μg/ml, or 1 to 10 μg/ml, or 10 to 20 μg/ml may be employed.

The pharmaceutical preparation of sprays, foams, powders, lotions, creams, gels, pastes and solutions is very well known in the art (see, for example, Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy 21^(st) Edition, 2005, ISBN: 0-7817-4673-6).

U.S. Pat. No. 6,251,423 (Smith & Nephew) describes a suitable sterilisable paste or cream formulation which can be topically applied to a patient, or applied to a surface of a bandage or wound dressing.

Suitable wound dressings are very well known in the art, and some are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,191,335; 5,792,089; 5,662,924 and 4,460,369 (Smith & Nephew), each of which is incorporated by reference. Wound dressings are reviewed, for example, by Harvey 2005; Vermeulen et al, 2005; Menaker, 2004; and Lionelli & Lawrence (2003), each of which is incorporated by reference.

In another embodiment, the PGE or agonist thereof or agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, GMCSF or a derivative thereof, together with any of the other optional active agents, may be administered as components of a tissue sealant such a fibrin glue. Fibrin glues generally are prepared from: (1) a fibrinogen concentrate, which contains fibronectin, Factor XIII, and von Willebrand factor; (2) dried human or bovine thrombin; and (3) calcium ions. Commercially prepared fibrin glues may often contain bovine components. The fibrinogen concentrate can be prepared from plasma by cryoprecipitation followed by fractionation, to yield a composition that forms a sealant or clot upon mixture with thrombin and an activator of thrombin such as calcium ions. The fibrinogen and thrombin concentrates are prepared in lyophilised form and are mixed with a solution of calcium chloride immediately prior to use. Upon mixing, the components are applied to a tissue where they coagulate on the tissue surface and form a clot that includes cross-linked fibrin, thus maintaining the PGE or agonist thereof and the GMCSF or a derivative thereof, at the site of the wound. Suitable tissue sealant compositions, including fibrin glues and supplemented fibrin glues, are very well known in the art, and are reviewed by Spotnitz & Prabhu (2005), MacGillivray (2003), Clark (2003), and Albala (2003), each of which is incorporated by reference.

In another embodiment, any one or more of the active agents may be administered in an implantable device that delivers the active agent(s) to the wound, typically for controlled release of the active agent. Suitable implantable devices are known in the art and are described, for example, in US Patent Application No. 2004/0034357 (Smith & Nephew). The active agents, especially the PGE or agonist thereof and the GMCSF or a derivative thereof could be included in microspheres, and administered for contemporaneous controlled release of the active agents.

In a still further embodiment, any one or more of the active agents is administered by injection.

Preferably, any two or more of the active agents are administered simultaneously.

Also preferably, the PGE or agonist thereof or agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and the GMCSF or a derivative thereof are administered by the same route.

It is appreciated that the method may also be used for promoting the healing of an internal surgical wound. However, unlike other forms of wound healing treatment, the method may be helpful in providing a pro-healing environment before a wound is present. Thus, the method may be useful in providing a localised pro-wound healing environment in patients who are about to undergo surgery. It may be further beneficial to continue the administration during or after completion of the surgery.

Whether or not a particular patient is one who is expected to benefit from treatment may be determined by the physician.

It is appreciated that the method may also be useful for combating an ulcer or gastrointestinal damage, such as that associated with Crohn's disease. By “combating” a particular disease or condition we include the meaning of treating, preventing or ameliorating the symptoms of that particular disease or condition.

In such an embodiment, one or both of the PGE or agonist thereof or agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and the GMCSF or derivative thereof, may be administered orally, especially in a controlled release formulation. Alternatively, one or both of the PGE or agonist thereof or agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and the GMCSF or derivative thereof, may be administered as a suppository or capsule. The suppository or capsule may have an enteric coating for release of the active agent in the bowel of the patient.

Pregnancy may be a contraindication for the present invention. In fact, pregnancy is a contraindication for several prostaglandins including misoprostol. Cytotec (misoprostol) does not cause hypotension, but this may be a possible risk with the method of the invention.

In a particular embodiment, the invention does not include administering a stem cell, such as a skin stem cell, to the patient.

In another particular embodiment, the invention does not include administering the PGE or agonist thereof and the GMCSF or derivative thereof in the form of a solid substrate comprising a collagen matrix containing a plurality of vertebrate cells that are genetically engineered to express GMCSF; PGE₁ or PGE₂ associated with the solid substrate; and a plurality of microcarriers.

In another particular embodiment, the invention does not include administering the PGE or agonist thereof and the GMCSF or derivative thereof in the form of a composition comprising a plurality of vertebrate cells that are genetically engineered to express GMCSF; a plurality of microcarriers; and PGE₁ or PGE₂.

A second aspect of the invention provides the use of (i) a PGE or an agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof, in the preparation of a medicament for promoting healing of a wound in a patient. Thus, the PGE or agonist thereof and/or agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and the GMCSF or derivative thereof may be combined in the same medicament before administration to the patient.

A third aspect of the invention provides the use of GMCSF or a derivative thereof in the preparation of a medicament for promoting healing of a wound in a patient who is administered a PGE or an agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE. Thus, the patient may already have been administered the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE before administration of the GMCSF or derivative thereof, or is administered the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE at the same time as the GMCSF or derivative thereof, or will be administered the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE after administration of the GMCSF or derivative thereof.

A fourth aspect of the invention provides the use of a PGE or an agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE in the preparation of a medicament for promoting healing of a wound in a patient who is administered GMCSF or a derivative thereof. Thus, the patient may already have been administered the GMCSF or derivative thereof before administration of the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, or is administered the GMCSF or derivative thereof at the same tine as the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, or will be administered the GMCSF or derivative thereof after administration of the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE.

Preferences for the PGE, the agonist thereof and the agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, and for the GMCSF and the derivative thereof, routes of administration, doses and so on for the second, third and fourth aspects of the invention are as defined above with respect to the first aspect of the invention.

It is appreciated that the medicaments described above in the second, third and fourth aspects of the invention may also comprise a skin permeability enhancer, an antimicrobial agent, an analgesic agent and/or an anesthetic agent. It is further appreciated that the medicaments described above in the second, third, and fourth aspects of the invention may be for promoting healing of a wound in a patient who has been administered a skin permeability enhancer, an antimicrobial agent, an analgesic agent and/or an anesthetic agent. The preferences for the skin permeability enhancer, antimicrobial agent, analgesic agent and the anesthetic agent are the same as described above for the first aspect of the invention.

Preferably, the medicament of the second, third and fourth aspects of the invention is formulated for local administration to the patient at the site of the wound. The medicament may be formulated in the form of a gel, cream, lotion, paste, patch or spray as described above. Alternatively, the medicament may be formulated in the form of a wound dressing, bandage or tissue sealant as described above. As a further alternative, the medicament may be formulated for administration by injection.

The medicament may be suitable for promoting the healing of an external wound or an internal surgical wound

The medicament may also be suitable for promoting the healing of an internal wound such as an ulcer or a wound associated with Crohn's disease. Thus the invention includes the use of (i) PGE or an agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof as defined in the second, third and fourth aspects of the invention, and optionally any of the other active agents mentioned above, in the preparation of a medicament for combating an ulcer or for combating Crohn's disease. In this embodiment, the medicament may be formulated for oral administration, or as a suppository or capsule, as described above.

A fifth aspect of the invention provides a wound dressing, bandage or tissue sealant composition comprising (i) a PGE or an agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof.

Preferences for the PGE or agonist thereof, the agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, and the GMCSF or derivative thereof, are as defined above with respect to the first aspect of the invention.

In an embodiment, the wound dressing, bandage or tissue sealant composition further comprises any one or more of a skin permeability enhancer, an antimicrobial agent, an analgesic agent or an anesthetic agent. Preferences for the skin permeability enhancer, the antimicrobial agent, the analgesic agent and the anesthetic agent are as defined above with respect to the first aspect of the invention.

Typically, the wound dressing, bandage or tissue sealant composition is suitable for application to an external wound, as discussed above. In another embodiment, the wound dressing or tissue sealant composition may be suitable for application to an internal surgical wound, as discussed above.

A sixth aspect of the invention provides a gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray comprising (i) a PGE or an agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof, and (iii) at least one further agent selected from an antimicrobial agent, an analgesic agent and an anesthetic agent.

Preferences for the PGE or agonist thereof, the agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, the GMCSF or derivative thereof, the antimicrobial agent, the analgesic agent and the anesthetic agent are as defined above with respect to the first aspect of the invention.

In an embodiment, the gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray comprises any two or more of the antimicrobial agent, analgesic agent and anesthetic agent.

In an embodiment, the gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray further comprises a skin permeability enhancer as defined above with respect to the first aspect of the invention.

Typically, the gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray is suitable for application to an external wound. In another embodiment, the gel, cream or lotion may be suitable for application to an internal surgical wound.

The inventor has shown that PGE and GMCSF cause enhanced expression of CXCL8, CCL2 and PBP-CXCL7 in cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage. By “cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage” we include cells that are derived from monocyte precursors and include macrophages and monocytes.

A seventh aspect of the invention provides a method of stimulating or enhancing expression of CXCL8, CCL2 and PBP in cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage, the method comprising administering to the cells (i) a PGE or agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof.

The invention also includes a method of stimulating or enhancing secretion of CXCL8, CCL2 and CXCL7 from cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage by administering to the cells (i) a PGE or agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof.

The method may be performed in vitro or ex vivo. Alternatively, the method may be performed in vivo.

This aspect of the invention includes the use of (i) a PGE or agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof in the preparation of a medicament for stimulating or enhancing expression of CXCL8, CCL2 and PBP in cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage.

Similarly, the invention includes the use of (i) a PGE or agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof in the preparation of a medicament for stimulating or enhancing secretion of CXCL8, CCL2 and CXCL7 from cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage.

All of the documents referred to herein are incorporated herein, in their entirety, by reference.

The listing or discussion of a prior-published document in this specification should not necessarily be taken as an acknowledgement that the document is part of the state of the art or is common general knowledge.

The invention will now be described in more detail with the aid of the following Figures and Examples.

FIG. 1

cDNA and amino acid sequence (FIGS. 1A (SEQ ID No 1) and 1B (SEQ ID No 2), respectively) of human GMCSF, taken from Genbank Accession No. NM_(—)000758.

FIG. 2

FIG. 2 is a Venn diagram showing the overlap in differentially expressed genes between treatments GMCSF+PGE [treatment 1] and control (group 2-group 1), GMCSF+HSP [treatment 2] and control (group 3-group 1) and GMCSF+HSP [treatment 2] and GMCSF+PGE [treatment 1] (group 3-group 2).

FIG. 3

FIG. 3 is a graph showing the synergistic action on CXCL8 (IL-8) of both PGE and human seminal plasma when combined with GMCSF. CXCL8 (CCL8) mRNA expression and CXCL8 protein release from the cells over 48 hours display this synergistic effect.

FIG. 4

FIG. 4 is a graph showing the synergistic action of the low-molecular weight fraction of human seminal plasma (HSP) and GMCSF on chemokine/protein release from monocytic ML1 cells after 48 hours in culture.

FIG. 5

FIG. 5 is a graph showing the synergistic action of PGE and GMCSF on chemokine/protein release from monocytic U937 cells after 48 hours in culture. The release of chemokines CXCL8 and CCL2 in response to GMCSF and PGE demonstrates that the synergistic effect of GMCSF with human seminal plasma is reproduced by PGE. GMCSF and PGE also have a synergistic effect on the release of soluble CD14 and IL-10.

FIG. 6

FIG. 6 is a graph showing the effect of pretreatment with PGE and GMCSF on IL-8 and COX-2 expression in ML1 cells. Cells were incubated for 48 hours either with no additions or with PGE together with GMCSF. The pre-treatments were removed and the cells were washed and then three further treatments were added: control, PGE and GMCSF, and Phorbol myristoyl acetate (PMA, which is a well established differentiation agent for monocytes). Incubation was continued for a further 48 hours. The effect of the PGE and GMCSF pretreatment is preserved at the end of the 4 day period after exposure to PMA.

FIG. 7

FIG. 7 is a graph showing the synergistic action of PGE and GMCSF on the expression of the pro-platelet basic protein (PBP) gene (referred to as CXCL7) in monocytic ML1 cells after 48 hours in culture. The expression of pro-PBP in response to GMCSF and PGE demonstrates that the effect seen in the expression arrays represents true synergism. Pro-PBP expression in response to GMCSF and PGE was increased 3725 times over the control. GMCSF and PGE were also shown to have a synergistic effect on the expression of IL-10, but to a lesser extent than for pro-PBP.

FIG. 8

FIG. 8 is a graph derived from Engelhardt et al (1998) showing the arrival of both neutrophils and monocytes as a feature of wound repair in human wounds.

FIG. 9

FIG. 9 is a graph showing wound area measurements in a rat model of wound healing, administered four different treatments, on days 3, 7 and 10 post surgery.

FIG. 10

FIG. 10 is a graph showing wound area measurements in a rat model of wound healing, administered four different treatments, on day 3 post surgery. The asterisk denotes a significant decrease in wound area in rats treated with a combination of PGE and GMCSF, relative to control treated rats. No significant decrease was observed in rats administered either PGE or GMCSF alone.

FIG. 11

FIG. 11 is a grid showing daily colour observations of wounds in rats administered each of the four treatments. Wounds were scored as being either red (R) brown (B) black or scab yellow (Y), whereby red indicates a less healed wound than brown. The grid shows the effect of PGE and GMCSF (treatment 4) on days 9 and 10, there being more brown scores than in control rats (treatment 1) or in rats administered either PGE or GMCSF alone (treatments 2 and 3).

EXAMPLE 1 Prostaglandin E/GMCSF Synergy on Cytokine Induction Summary

Results from gene expression array studies using human seminal plasma (HSP) and GMCSF, and PGE and GMCSF, in a human monocyte model system showed an unexpected pattern of cytokine gene expression. In the first assay using a HSP/GMCSF treatment regime, a thousand-fold increase in the expression of several chemokines (chemotactic cytokines) was seen and the three mRNAs most highly increased over control were chemokines. The chemokine expression appeared to be cAMP independent. In the second assay using HSP/GMCSF and PGE/GMCSF treatment regimes, a several hundred-fold increase in the expression of several chemokines was seen. Four of the eight mRNAs most highly increased over control were chemokines, including the top three in the first assay. The chemokine pattern in response to HSP/GMCSF and PGE/GMCSF was very similar to that seen in the first phase of wound healing. These results suggest that an intervention of locally applied PGE, or an agent which increases its local concentration, and GMCSF may be therapeutically useful in wound healing

Experimental Details Gene Expression Arrays

U937 or ML1 (human monocyte cell lines) cells were grown in RPMI (PAA Laboratories) medium with 10% fetal calf serum added (PAA Laboratories). For the first assay, cells were treated with no additions, sterile-filtered (0.22 μM) 1% human seminal plasma (HSP) or forskolin (25 μM) with GMCSF at 5 ng/ml for 48 hours (results are shown in Table 2). The second set of arrays differs in the replicates. This second assay included 2 duplicate control cultures, 2 cultures treated with 10⁻⁶ M PGE+5 ng/ml GMCSF, and 4 treated with 1% HSP+5 ng/ml GMCSF. (The results in Table 3 are means of the replicates.)

Cells were pelleted and the mRNA was extracted with Tri reagent (Sigma, Poole, UK). Total RNA was obtained by addition of chloroform and subsequent isopropanol precipitation. Samples were analysed using ABI/Celera arrays consisting of 32,800 genes.

The concentration and quality of the total RNA was assessed by spectrophotometry (nanodrop) and bioanalyser (Agilent). RT-IVT was then carried out in accordance to the Applied Biosystems Chemiluminescent RT-IVT nanoamp (one-cycle) labeling protocol for all samples. QC procedures (Nanodrop and Agilent bioanalyser) were carried out on the cRNA samples to confirm the quality and quantity of the cRNA. The samples were fragmented and subsequently prepared for hybridisation to Applied Biosystems Human Genome Survey Microarray (Version 2), for 16 hours. Following hybridisation, the arrays were stained and washed using the Applied Biosystems Chemiluminescence detection kit. The arrays were finally scanned using the Applied Biosystems 1700 Chemiluminescent Microarray Analyzer. Array studies were carried out by MRC Gene-services, Cambridge, UK.

In the first assay, expressed genes (signal from treated cells divided by signal from control cells) were ranked and the 32 most highly expressed genes are listed in Table 2. In the second assay, expressed genes were ranked (signal from treated cells divided by signal from control cells), and the 32 most highly expressed genes are listed in Table 3. The second assay underwent statistical analysis and the genes were ranked according to the probability of being enhanced over control (as specified by the B value, which equals the log [base 2] of odds that a gene is differentially expressed). Only genes having a B value over 4 are listed in Tables 5 and 6. The gene expression is ranked by the increase in gene expression (log [Base 2] increase is shown as ‘M’. The pathways in which the differentially expressed genes have been implicated are also listed in Table 7. The pathway analysis was performed using a proprietary programme by Geneservice Ltd (Cambridge UK).

RT-PCR for Measuring Cytokine Expression

High ranking genes were studied further by quantitative reverse transcription polymer chain reaction (RT-PCR) using the ABI Taqman system. Probes and primers for amplification and detection of IL-8 and a number of other molecules were designed using Primer Express (Applied Biosystems). In these studies, incubation of cells was identical to above and the effect of pure PGE was determined and found to be the same as that seen with human seminal plasma.

mRNA for specific genes was amplified in a Taqman 7700 machine for 40 cycles using FAM/TAMRA dyes on the probe. The Applied Biosystems kit was used to amplify and detect ribosomal (18S) RNA (using VIC/TAMRA dyes) as an internal control in the same reaction tube. After 40 cycles the Ct (related to cycle number at which signal appears) for the FAM and the 18S (VIC) were recorded and relative quantitation was achieved using the formula 2^(−ΔΔCt) where Δ refers to the difference between the FAM and VIC signal related to a standard comparator included in each run.

The primers used were as follows:

Pro-PBP(CXCL7) Accession number NM_(—)002704

Forward: 5′-CCAAAAACATCCAAAGTTTGGAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 3) Reverse: 5′-CAGTGTGGCTATCACTTCGACTTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 4) Probe: 5′-TGATCGGGAAAGGAACCCATTGCA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 5) COX-2 (Accession No. D28235)

Forward: 5′-GTGTTGACATCCAGATCACATTTGA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 6) Reverse: 5′-GAGAAGGCTTCCCAGCTTTTGTA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 7) Probe: 5′-TGACAGTCCACCAACTTACAATGCTGACTATGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 8) CXCL8 (CCL8, IL-8 (Accession No. NM_(—)000584)

Forward: 5′-CTGGCCGTGGCTCTCTTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 9) Reverse: 5′-TTAGCACTCCTTGGCAAAACTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 10) Probe: 5′-CCTTCCTGATTTCTGCAGCTCTGTGTGAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 11) IL-10 Forward: 5′-CTACGGCGCTGTCATCGAT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 12) Reverse: 5′-TGGAGCTTATTAAAGGCATTCTTCA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 13) Probe: 5′-CTTCCCTGTGAAAACAAGAGCAAGGCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 14)

ELISA for Measuring Cytokine Release

Medium was removed from cells and analysed by ELISA. A monoclonal capture antibody was coated onto 96 well plates and culture medium was added each well. A standard curve was created with recombinant protein. After incubation and washing, a biotin-labelled monoclonal antibody was added. Following further incubation and washing, peroxidase-labelled streptavidin was added. After washing, a tetramethyl benzidine substrate was added and colour developed in proportion to the concentration of the cytokine in the original sample/standard. Colour was read using a plate photometer (Labsystems, Multiskan).

Paired antibodies and recombinant standards for CD14, CXCL8 (IL-8), and CCL2 (MCP-1) were obtained from R&D Systems Ltd, Abingdon UK and antibodies for IL-10 were obtained from Pharmingen (BD Bioscience, Erembodegem, Belgium), as shown below in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Capture Detection Recombinant Analyte antibody antibody Standard CD14 MAB3833 BAF383 383-CD-050 IL8 (CXCL8) MAB208 BAF208 208-IL MCP-1 (CCL2) MAB679 BAF279 279MC IL10 Pharmingen - Pharmingen - (Pharmingen) - 554497 554499 554611

Results

Table 2 shows the 32 genes with the highest level of increased expression relative to control. The 3^(rd) column is control expression levels; the 4^(th) column is the expression level after treatment with HSP and GMCSF; and the 5^(th) column is a ratio of columns 4 to 3. The chemokines are shown in bold.

The data in Table 3 shows that although the pattern of genes stimulated by PGE+GMCSF is slightly different from those stimulated by HSP+GMCSF, there is still a predominance of chemokine stimulation. 10 chemokines are ranked in the top 29 genes ranked by signal intensity of PGE+GMCSF (column 4) over control (column 3). The chemokines PBP-CXCL7, CCL2 and CXCL8 are all in the top 8.

Considering that these results are derived from expression studies on 32,000 genes using different batches of ML1 cells, and different treatment regimes, there is a very high correlation between the expression induced by PGE+GM-CSF (Table 3) compared to HSP+GMCSF (Table 2).

An alternative way to look at this data is to take the 32 genes with the highest rank in PGE+GMCSF/Control (from Table 3) and rank them on the basis of total intensity of PGE+GMCSF/control. This data is shown in Table 4. This removes the importance of the genes that have a high ratio increase but are not expressed to any extent in the control. This analysis highlights the importance of the chemokines as well as the calgranulins. Indeed, according to this ranking, seven of the top 13 genes are chemokines.

A further way to analyse the data is by statistical interrogation, ranking upregulated differentially expressed genes, relative to control, according to a M value which is the log of the fold increase over control. Only those genes that have a B value greater than 4 are included where the B value is the log(base 2) of odds that a gene is differentially expressed. This data is shown in Tables 5 and 6, for cells treated with HSP+GMCSF and PGE+GMCSF respectively. The data shows that although the pattern of genes stimulated by PGE+GMCSF is slightly different from those stimulated by HSP+GMCSF, there is still a predominance of chemokine stimulation, with PBP-CXCL7 being the top ranked gene in each treatment.

FIG. 2 is a Venn diagram showing overlap in differentially expressed genes between treatment groups GMCSF+PGE [treatment 1] and control (group 2-group 1); GMCSF+HSP [treatment 2] and control (group 3-group 1); and GMCSF+HSP [treatment 2] and GMCSF+PGE [treatment 1] (group 3-group 2). Most of the differentially expressed genes in ML1 cells treated with GMCSF+PGE relative to control (712 out of 746 genes) were also differentially expressed in ML1 cells treated with GMCSF+HSP relative to control. Indeed, there were only 98 genes that were differentially expressed between the two treatment groups GMCSF+PGE and GMCSF+HSP and, of these, 40 genes were amongst those differentially expressed relative to the control treatment. Taken together, these observations underline the high similarity of the expression profiles induced by both GMCSF+HSP and GMCSF+PGE treatments.

Table 7 lists the pathways in which the upregulated differentially expressed genes identified in Tables 5 and 6 are implicated, ranked according to significance. The table shows that for both GMCSF+HSP and GMCSF+PGE treatments, inflammation mediated by chemokine and cytokine signalling is the most significant pathway in which the differentially expressed genes have been implicated. Moreover, 12 out of the 13 pathways in which the differentially expressed genes were implicated, in cells treated with GMCSF+PGE, were also implicated for the differentially expressed genes identified in cells treated with GMCSF+HSP, again highlighting the similarity in expression profiles between the two treatments.

FIG. 3 is a graph showing the synergistic action on CXCL8 (CCL8, IL-8) of both PGE and human seminal plasma when combined with GMCSF on CXCL8 (CCL8, IL-8). CCL8 mRNA expression and CCL8 protein release from the cells over 48 hours display this synergistic effect.

FIG. 4 is a graph showing the synergistic action of the low-molecular weight fraction of human seminal plasma (HSP) and GMCSF on chemokine release from monocytic ML1 cells after 48 hours in culture. The low-molecular weight fraction of human seminal plasma is depleted of proteins, but contains appreciable levels of soluble CD14. This explains the relatively high levels of CD14 measured after treatment with the HSP fraction alone.

FIG. 5 is a graph showing the synergistic action of PGE and GMCSF on chemokine release from monocytic U937 cells after 48 hours in culture. The release of chemokines CXCL8 and CCL2 in response to GMCSF and PGE demonstrates that the synergistic effect of GMCSF with human seminal plasma is reproduced by PGE. GMCSF and PGE also have a synergistic effect on the release of soluble CD14 and IL-10. The relevance of IL-10 (also known as cytokine synthesis inhibitory protein) is that it is an ‘inhibitory’ cytokine and is likely to stop unwanted excitatory agents such as histamine being released from mast cells. CD 14 is a marker of the macrophage lineage.

FIG. 6 is a graph showing the effect of pretreatment with PGE and GMCSF on IL-8 and COX-2 expression in ML1 cells. Cells were incubated for 48 hours either with no additions or with PGE together with GMCSF. The pre-treatments were removed and the cells were washed and then three further treatments were added: control, PGE and GMCSF, and Phorbol myristoyl acetate (PMA, which is a well established differentiation agent for monocytes). Incubation was continued for a further 48 hours. The effect of the PGE and GMCSF pretreatment is preserved at the end of the 4 day period after exposure to PMA. The relevance of COX-2 expression is that this will produce further PGE which prolong the exposure to the relatively unstable PGE.

FIG. 7 is a graph showing the synergistic action of PGE and GMCSF on the expression of the pro-PBP gene from monocytic ML1 cells after 48 hours in culture. (In FIG. 6, pro-PBP is referred to as CXCL7, one of its gene products). The expression of pro-PBP in response to GMCSF and PGE demonstrates that the effect seen in the expression arrays represents true synergism. Pro-PBP expression in response to GMCSF and PGE was increased 3725 times over the control. GMCSF and PGE were also shown to have a synergistic effect on the expression of IL-10, but to a lesser extent than for pro-PBP.

Discussion

In order to identify which genes have expression levels that change in response to PGE and GMCSF the inventor conducted array experiments which presented several unexpected findings. The inventor studied the effects of a combination of human seminal plasma (HSP) and GMCSF in a monocyte cell model (ML1 cells) and examined the genes that are maximally expressed (Table 2). Table 2 shows the 32 out of 32,800 genes that have the greatest increase in expression after treatment with HSP and GMCSF.

The inventor found that:

-   -   HSP and GMCSF induce huge increases in mRNA levels of several         chemokines.     -   The effects of HSP and forskolin differ when both are separately         combined with GMCSF, showing that the increases in expression         are not necessarily dependent on cAMP levels.     -   PGE and GMCSF induce huge increases in mRNA levels of several         chemokines in a similar fashion to HSP and GMCSF.     -   Follow-up studies show that the induction of chemokine mRNA and         protein release is a true synergistic action of E series         prostaglandin and GMCSF.

Surprisingly, the top three increases in gene expression in response to HSP and GMCSF were CXCL8/IL-8 (1549 times increased), CCL2/MCP-1 (1071 times increased) and PBP CXCL7/NAP-2 (918 times increased). These findings were reproduced in subsequent quantitative PCR and protein release studies when PGE and GMCSF are used together, but not separately, indicating a true synergism. The increases in mRNA are mirrored in the increases in protein released. These increases in chemokine expression accompany those seen for the pro-tolerant cytokine IL-10.

The array studies show that the total response to PGE is not exclusively mediated by elevated intracellular cAMP levels, thus indicating the importance of PGE itself, or agonists of it such as 16,16-dimethyl PGE. Raising cAMP levels is an important part of the action of PGE and GMCSF since it appears to be the main pathway in stimulating IL-10. cAMP levels may play some part in the release of chemokines from the monocyte, since rolipram, the type IV phosphodiesterase inhibitor, has been shown to enhance IL-8 release induced by PGE and GMCSF.

The pattern of chemokine induction by PGE and GM-CSF resembles the end of the first phase of wound repair and thus such a combination may be used to accelerate wound repair.

For example, slow healing wounds, such as those in areas of the skin that are poorly vascularised, or in the elderly, could be accelerated or promoted by the local administration of a PGE or agonist thereof and GMCSF or a derivative thereof. Indeed, this combination may be therapeutically useful for accelerating or promoting wound healing in a wider range of applications including skin wounds and surgical operation wounds in the otherwise healthy patient. This combination may also be useful in wound repair in the case of gastrointestinal damage such as that associated with Crohn's disease.

The expression of the pro-platelet basic protein (pro-PBP) gene showed the third highest increase in response to HSP+GMCSF (Table 2) and the highest increase in response to PGE+GMCSF (Table 3), and this was confirmed by the RT-PCR data shown in FIG. 7. The pro-PBP gene encodes platelet basic protein (PBP) which is a precursor of several polypeptides including CXCL7 (NAP-2), connective tissue activating peptide III (CTAPIII) and beta-thromboglobulin. Proudfoot et al (1997) states that both CXCL7 and CTAPIII are involved in the early stages of wound healing, and BTG is highly chemotactic for fibroblasts, again important in wound healing (Senior et al, 1983). This accentuates that the response to PGE and GMCSF is a pro-wound healing response. An increase in the level of the chemokine CXCL7 would be highly significant for promoting wound healing. Nevertheless, without wishing to be bound by theory, the inventor considers that it highly probable that the levels of each of CXCL7, CTAPIII and BTG are increased in response to PGE and GMCSF.

CCL2 (MCP-1) and CXCL8 (IL-8) are both known to be relevant to wound healing. FIG. 8 shows the arrival of both neutrophils and monocytes into tissue that is healing. This accords with the production of IL-8 (which attracts neutrophils) and MCP-1 (which attracts monocytes) being important in wound healing. There is also an element of angiogenesis in wound healing and the role of IL-8 and MCP-1 in this process is well described in the literature. IL-8 papers: (Koch et al 1992; Sunderkotter et al 1994; Arenberg et al. 1996) and MCP-1 papers: (Goede et al 1999; Kim et al 2005).

GMCSF has several actions, the most important and well defined is the ability to promote haematopoiesis, the expansion of leukocytes. This occurs largely in the bone marrow. The other actions include differentiation of leukocytes and a poorly-defined chemotactic action. GMCSF has been implicated in improved wound healing, particularly for ulcers (Siddiqui et al, 2000). This effect appears to involve induction of neutrophils and monocytes into the tissue but appears to be independent of the circulating levels of leukocytes (Jyung et al, 1994). There are occasional references to PGE and wound repair although they are not as consistent as those for GMCSF. Milio et al (2005) shows that PGE₁ improves the healing of ulcers, but this effect is thought to be due to the vasoactive and VEGF generating properties of PGE.

By contrast, the inventor considers that GMCSF is indirectly chemotactic by virtue of the stimulation of chemotactic cytokines such as CXCL8 and CCL2. In that case, the synergism between PGE and GMCSF would be very important since exploiting the synergism by adding a topical preparation of theses two agents would increase the speed and efficacy of the attraction of leukocytes and hence accelerate wound healing in a dependable manner.

Monocytic cells enter tissue relatively poorly differentiated. The cytokine milieu within the tissue plays a major part in differentiating the monocytes. The inventor considers that establishing a reservoir of PGE or an agonist thereof and GMCSF or a derivative thereof at the wound site after treatment would be particularly useful, allowing cells that are induced to migrate into the wound to be modulated by the PGE and GMCSF. One PGE agonist which might be particularly effective is 16,16-dimethyl PGE, which is resistant to the main catabolic enzyme 15-hydroxy prostaglandin dehydrogenase (Ohno et al, 1978). This compound is reported to activate all known PGE receptors.

In addition, the chemotactic cytokines produced by monocytic cells in response to this synergistic mix of PGE or an agonist thereof and GMCSF or a derivative thereof will themselves act synergistically with the PGE, thus enhancing the ingress of leukocytes (Foster et al, 1989; Colditz, 1990). Furthermore, the leukocytes that enter the tissue in response to the chemotactic signals will be relatively poorly differentiated and will mature under the influence of PGE, which will reduce the release of free-radicals by neutrophils, thus contributing to a pro-wound healing environment.

In addition to chemokine signalling, the pathway analysis in Table 7 identified angiogenesis and the Notch pathway as active components of the differential gene expression pattern in response to GMCSF and PGE. Both of these are also relevant to wound healing. Angiogenesis is critical to wound repair, facilitating the infiltration of inflammatory cells and cytokines to the site of injury, and Notch signalling has also recently been implicated in wound healing, being involved in epidermal cell differentiation (Thelu et al, 2002).

In addition, the genes with 7th and 9th highest level of increase of gene expression in Table 2 are both calgranulins. These are very relevant to wound healing as they are natural antimicrobial agents. A natural antimicrobial activity would greatly assist wound healing.

EXAMPLE 2 The Effect of PGE and GMCSF on a Rat Model of Wound Healing Summary

Results from experiments conducted in a rat model of wound healing demonstrated a synergy between a PGE analog and GMCSF in the acceleration of wound healing. Both wound area and wound colour were monitored to assess wound healing. Administering a combination of a PGE analog and GMCSF significantly reduced the wound area by day 3 post surgery, with no significant difference observed when either treatment was administered alone. Furthermore, wound colour observations indicated a synergy between the PGE analog and GMCSF at day 10. These results confirm that locally applied PGE and GMCSF is useful in accelerating wound healing in rats.

Experimental Details Animals Used

Male Sprague Dawley rats weighing between 250-300 grams were used as a wound healing model to assess the effects of PGE and GMCSF. 6 rats per treatment group were analysed to provide adequate data for statistical comparisons between control and treated groups. A total of 24 animals were used (4 groups of 6 rats). The four groups were control, 16,16-dimethyl PGE, GMCSF, and 16,16-dimethyl PGE+GMCSF groups. Animals were group housed until treatment, then singly housed (so animals did not lick or chew on each other's wounds) in microisolator polycarbonate show box cages with elevated steel floors (to prevent bedding and faeces from entering the open wound sites). Two wounds were created on each animal, resulting in an “n” of 12 wounds per group.

Protocol

Following acclimatisation (5-6 days), the rats were given a subcutaneous injection of Glycopyrolate (0.01 mg/kg at 0.02 mg/mL), dose volume 0.5 mL/kg, and anesthetised with an intraperitoneal injection of a Ketamine (40 mg/kg)/Xylazine (5 mg/kg) cocktail at 45 mg/mL (ket) and 5 mg/mL (xy), dose volume 0.88 μL/kg. Adequate depth of anesthesia was assessed by a toe pinch prior to beginning surgery, such that if any movement was noted, the animals were given more anaesthesia. Surgery did not commence until the animal was adequately anesthetised. Once anesthesia was accomplished, a 6×8 cm area was shaved in the dorsal area. Following shaving, a depilatory agent (Nair) was applied to the shaved area, and allowed to remain on the skin for approximately 5 minutes. After this time, the Nair was gently scraped from the skin with a blunt spatula and any residue was removed by rinsing the skin with deionised, distilled water and wiping with gauze sponges. The shaved area was then surgically prepared with chlorhexidine and alcohol scrub.

The rat was then placed on its abdomen and positioned in such a way that the limbs were relaxed and the spine was straight. A T-shaped template was arranged on the dorsum with the stem of the T centered on the spine and the crosspiece of the T adjacent to the inferior angle of the scapulae. The inside margins of the T were traced with a Sharpie pen, such that as upside-down “L” appeared on the right side of the rat and an upside-down and backward “L” appeared on the left side of the animal. These designated the cranial border of each wound, approximately 3 cm caudal to the scapular angles, and the medial border of each wound, approximately 0.25 cm from the midline.

To make the wound template, the rim of a cap from a Corning 15 ml conical tube was placed on the area and traced using a sterile surgical marker creating a 2 cm circle within one of the upside-down L's described above. An initial incision was made with a #10 scalpel blade at the medial edge of each circle. The incision was made through the panniculus carnosus into the areolar layer of the subcutaneous loose connective tissue. The excision was continued around the entire perimeter of the circle using forceps and Metzenbaum curved scissors while taking care to avoid damaging the deep fescial layers. The skin was removed to leave a circular wound. Where necessary, hemostasis was achieved by even compression with a sterile gauze pad.

The test agent or vehicle control, was administered at three different sites under the wound bed. Group assignments and dose levels for each treatment were as detailed in Table 8. Dose levels were based on body weight.

TABLE 8 Number Dose Dose solution Group of volume concentration No. Males Treatment per site (mL/kg) (mg/mL) 1 6 Control (buffered 0.9% 1.07 N/A saline) 2 6 PGE analog (400 μg/kg) 1.06  0.38 mg/mL 3 6 GMCSF (25 μg/kg) 1.09 0.023 mg/mL 4 6 PGE analog + 0.525 + 0.778 mg/mL + GMCSF (400 μg/kg + 0.514 0.048 mg/mL 25 μg/kg)

The wounds were not covered with any type of dressing. Approximately 30 minutes after recovery (determined by sternal recumbency and normal movement) the animals were given a subcutaneous injection of Buprenorphine (0.1 mg/kg) and transferred to individual cages with elevated stainless steel floors. Additional Buprenorphine was given every 6-8 hours as needed, then for the following 72 hours, 0.05 mg/kg was administered every 6-12 hours as needed.

The animals were monitored for any signs of pain and/or distress such as decreased appetite, decreased activity, scruffy appearance, and inability or reluctance to maintain normal hydration, in addition to monitoring the animals daily for wound infection and signs of stress. Food and water were provided ad libitum.

Animals were anesthetised with isoflurane on days 3, 7, and 10 following surgery and the wounds were measured by caliper for width and length. The width and length measurements were then multiplied to calculate wound area and the mean wound area and standard error of the mean for each treatment determined. To test for any significant difference in wound healing relative to control treatment, a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was performed on the mean wound areas. In addition to wound area, wound healing was evaluated daily by observing wound colour. Wounds were scored as being either red or brown or in two instances black or in two instances scab yellow, whereby red indicates a less healed wound than brown.

After wound evaluation on day 10, animals were sacrificed by an intercardiac injection of Beuthanasia solution (150 mg/kg) while under inhaled isoflurane. Wound sites were collected and stored in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 24 hours, before being transferred to 80% ethanol.

Results

Table 9 shows the mean wound area for each treatment group on days 3, 7 and 10, following surgery. The same data is represented in graphical format in FIG. 8. Analysis of the data using a two-way ANOVA test revealed the synergistic action of a PGE analog and GMCSF on wound healing (Table 10). Following treatment with a combination of a PGE analog (16,16-dimethyl PGE) and GMCSF, wound area was significantly reduced relative to control on day 3 post surgery. No significant difference in wound area was observed when the wound was treated with the PGE analog or GMCSF alone.

FIG. 9 illustrates the differences in wound area on day 3 post surgery, for each of the four treatments. As determined by the two-way ANOVA analysis, only a combination of the PGE analog and GMCSF resulted in a significant reduction in wound area.

FIG. 10 illustrates the daily wound colour observations for rats administered with each of the four treatments. Administering the PGE analog, GMCSF or a combination of the analog and GMCSF to the wound, all accelerated wound healing, having more consistent brown scores relative to the control treatment on days 3-5. Furthermore a synergistic action between the PGE analog and GMCSF was revealed at days 9 and 10. There were more consistent brown scores on days 9 and 10 in treatment group 4 (=9), compared to group 3 (=3) and groups 1 and 2 (=2).

TABLE 9 Comparison of treatments in the progression of wound healing. Mean wound area and standard (St.) error, as measured on days 3, 7 and 10, are listed for each treatment. The PGE analog used was 16,16-dimethyl PGE. Day 3 Day 7 Day 10 Mean Mean Mean wound wound wound area St. area St. area St. Treatment (mm²) Error (mm²) Error (mm²) Error Control 439.7 26.1 266.6 46.1 144.2 32.5 PGE analog 387.5 49.8 255.4 39.3 135.1 12.5 GMCSF 424.2 44.8 248.0 50.7 153.0 41.5 PGE analog + 375.4 29.7 242.2 48.4 150.3 36.5 GMCSF

TABLE 10 Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) analysis of mean wound areas in table 9, testing whether there is any significant difference in wound healing progression relative to control, when each of a PGE analog, GMCSF or a combination of a PGE analog and GMCSF, are administered to the wound. The difference in wound area relative to control, the t value from the ANOVA analysis and the corresponding significance of the result, as on days 3, 7 and 10, are listed for each of the treatments. PGE analog + Day PGE analog GMCSF GMCSF Difference in 3 −52.21 −15.50 −64.27 wound area 7 −11.29 −18.63 −24.43 relative to 10 −9.185 8.761 6.104 control t value 3 2.166 0.6744 2.797 7 0.4685 0.8107 1.063 10 0.3811 0.3813 0.2656 p value 3 p > 0.05 p > 0.05 p < 0.05 7 p > 0.05 p > 0.05 p > 0.05 10 p > 0.05 p > 0.05 p > 0.05

Discussion

To determine the impact that PGE and GMCSF has on wound healing in vivo, the inventor conducted experiments on a rat model of wound healing. The inventor studied the effects of administering different treatment regimes, namely a PGE analog (16,16-dimethyl PGE), GMCSF and a combination of the PGE analog and GMCSF to a wound, and examined wound area, relative to control, on days 3, 7 and 10 post surgery. Wound colour was also scored as being red or brown on a daily basis, red wounds being less healed than brown wounds.

The inventor found that on day 3 there was a marked synergy between a PGE analog and GMCSF, resulting in a significant reduction in wound area compared to control. No significant difference in wound area was apparent when using either the PGE analog or GMCSF alone. No significant difference in wound area relative to control was observed on either of days 7 or 10, post surgery. Since the model used was one of wound healing in a normal healthy rat, the inventor considers that it is probable that on days 7 and 10, wound healing in an untreated rat had sufficiently progressed to mask any difference. In contrast, on day 3, during the first stage of wound healing, the healing process of wounds treated with PGE and GMCSF would be much more advanced relative to that in normal rats, resulting in a significant difference in wound area.

Similarly, a synergy between a PGE analog and GMCSF in accelerating wound healing was also demonstrated when the inventor assessed wound healing by colour observations. Specifically, on days 9 and 10 post surgery, wounds administered with a combination of a PGE analog and GMCSF, had more consistent brown scores, and therefore were more healed than wounds treated with either of the treatments alone.

Taken together, these results confirm that administering a combination of PGE and GMCSF to a wound accelerates the healing process. The inventor believe that administration of PGE and GMCSF accelerated wound healing by the creation of a pro wound healing environment, established by the induction of chemokines resembling the first phase of wound repair, as demonstrated in Example 1.

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TABLE 2 Ranked expression of mRNA from ML1 cells treated with 1% human seminal plasma (HSP) + GMCSF divided by the control mRNA with no treatment. First 32 genes out of 32,800 ranked accordingly are shown. Chemokines are indicated in bold type. Expression Expression Expression Treatment/ Rank Gene Code (“F”) (Control) (Treatment) Control Gene Type α-Type 1 hCG16372.3 12,287.45 194.67 301,606.70 1549.32 CXCL-8 (IL8) ELR+ Alpha 2 hCG29298.3 56,365.03 431.14 462,123.87 1071.86 CCL2 (MCP1) Beta 3 hCG16365.2 33,130.82 316.82 290,913.62 918.23 Pro-PBP (CXCL7; NAP-2) ELR+ Alpha 4 hCG2039461 38,284.21 115.19 40,955.91 355.55 Immunoglobulin-like receptor 5 hCG40366.2 24,259.02 433.77 137,422.27 316.81 OAS1 6 hCG45292.2 5,757.07 318.35 89,565.76 281.34 CD14 7 hCG15465.3 346,898.74 1,242.30 339,984.34 273.67 Calgranulin B 8 hCG24570.3 12,702.03 298.72 80,052.63 267.99 IFIT4 9 hCG1743776.3 109,591.47 346.56 91,561.37 264.20 Calgranulin A (S100A8) 10 hCG1640186.3 48,569.83 291.21 73,656.88 252.93 Pleckstrin homology sec 7 11 hCG40366.2 27,489.00 612.14 151,389.24 247.31 OAS1 12 hCG1771418.1 52,554.69 1,911.97 454,626.68 237.78 GIP2 (interferon-induced protein) 13 hCG1748235.2 543.71 186.05 43,799.11 235.42 CCL4 (MIP1beta) beta 14 hCG27362.3 19,554.53 405.46 85,775.33 211.55 OASL 15 hCG1789754.2 28,802.91 187.55 38,983.96 207.86 Integrin alpha X (NM_005101) 16 hCG16361.2 3,949.28 264.91 54,768.38 206.74 CXCL2 ELR+ alpha 17 hCG1749202.1 520.09 176.94 36,191.69 204.54 CCL3 (MIP1alpha) beta 18 hCG2012695 31,069.68 189.95 34,326.83 180.72 TRPM8 (transient cation channel) 19 hCG1816984.1 92,324.57 2,721.57 463,563.59 170.33 Ferritin 20 hCG41471.2 5,449.12 279.9 41,429.94 148.02 MMP1 21 hCG1749202.1 1,118.16 291.21 39,309.80 134.99 CCL3 22 hCG1727099.1 13,176.95 1,755.36 227,611.17 129.67 GIP3 23 hCG1643352.3 13,509.43 373.97 47,886.39 128.05 Ribonucleoprotein 24 hCG40171.2 27,221.55 491.68 62,896.17 127.92 IRF ISGF3 gamma sub-unit 25 hCG24571.3 47,333.38 1,770.34 220,965.77 124.82 IFIT 1 (interferon induced protein) 26 hCG23571.3 25,438.51 307.36 37,210.44 121.06 TYROBP (protein Y kinase binding protein) 27 hCG26002.2 8,981.58 342.77 41,243.12 120.32 IER 3 (immediate early response) 28 hCG33721.2 250,337.23 3,795.09 427,922.50 112.76 Serpin B2 29 hCG28054.3 185.17 604.86 67,458.16 111.53 Cathepsin O (NM_001334) 30 hCG1807133.1 4,811.64 469.35 51,378.72 109.47 CXCL7-like 31 hCG1788111.2 3,472.06 236.37 24,968.92 105.63 TRIM 22 (tripartite motif containing) 32 hCG2010232.2 59,530.86 931.36 97,204.08 104.37 T cell receptor gamma chain In column 3, Expression “F” is expression in the presence of forskolin + GMCSF. In column 4, the “Control” is expression in the absence of treatment. In column 5, the “Treatment” is HSP + GMCSF. In column 8, “Type” is the chemokine type. In column 9, “α-Type” is the type of α chemokine.

TABLE 3 Ranked expression of mRNA from ML1 cells treated with PGE + GMCSF and 1% HSP + GMCSF divided by the control (mRNA expression with no treatment). The top 32 genes out of 32,800 ranked according to the ratio of PGE + GMCSF/control are shown. Chemokines are indicated in bold type. Rank Gene code Control Treatment “P” Treatment “H” Ratio “P” Ratio “H” Gene Type α-Type 1 hCG16365.2 1535 1074816 841633 700.4 548.4 Pro-PBP (CXCL7; NAP-2) alpha ELR+ 2 hCG41471.2 1686 750104 710894 445.0 421.7 MMP1 3 hCG2039077 336 140580 73517 418.8 219.0 AF086204-1 - unassigned 4 hCG26571.3 176 42252 32861 240.5 187.0 EPM-protein 1 5 hCG29298.3 6847 1063685 1350173 155.4 197.2 CCL2 (MCP-1) beta 6 hCG2039724.1 668 97343 46261 145.8 69.3 MHC-1 7 hCG16366.3 244 33072 57966 135.5 237.5 CXCL3 alpha ELR+ 8 hCG16372.3 1687 221659 509116 131.4 301.8 CXCL8 alpha ELR+ 9 hCG16263.2 3317 404895 688215 122.1 207.5 IL-1Beta 10 hCG39885.3 681 81732 117266 120.1 172.3 COX-2 11 hCG1743776.3 6885 794219 697255 115.4 101.3 Calgranulin A (S100A8) 12 hCG29304.2 586 66039 43517 112.6 74.2 CCL7 beta 13 hCG14693.4 521 57424 49126 110.2 94.2 IgGFcRec 14 hCG1748235.2 1722 178566 166816 103.7 96.9 CCL4 MIP 1bta beta 15 hCG1805714.2 139 13598 13632 98.1 98.4 IFIT 16 hCG15468.3 465 44929 18742 96.6 40.3 Calgranulin C 17 hCG38806.4 419 36100 29363 86.2 70.1 ATP6VOD2 18 hCG41965.2 293 24310 74172 82.9 252.9 TNFAIP6 19 hCG1749202.1 1595 128682 168075 80.7 105.4 CCL3 beta 20 hCG91957.2 214 16722 20206 78.2 94.5 FPR1 21 hCG1653946.3 1445 111172 53305 76.9 36.9 KIR3DL2 22 hCG29301.2 481 36861 51160 76.7 106.4 CCL8 beta 23 hCG45292.2 1566 114615 420325 73.2 268.4 CD14 24 hCG20766.3 282 20445 15154 72.5 53.8 ZPF36L1 25 hCG1775764.2 1012 72187 65044 71.4 64.3 C5R1 26 hCG1685968.2 457 32015 36514 70.1 79.9 FAP 27 hCG1749202.1 1873 114829 144856 61.3 77.3 CCL3 beta 28 hCG1773845.2 444 26799 31618 60.3 71.2 CLECSF12 29 hCG16361.2 1929 111484 139955 57.8 72.6 CXCL2 alpha ELR+ 30 hCG15465.3 30966 1741317 1486169 56.2 48.0 Calgranulin B 31 hCG27362.3 1948 108526 100746 55.7 51.7 OASL 32 hCG26002.2 1605 86823 291778 54.1 181.8 IER3 (immediate early response) In column 3, the “Control” is expression in the absence of treatment. In column 4, Treatment “P” is the mean expression with the treatment PGE + GMCSF. In column 5, Treatment “H” is the mean expression with the treatment HSP + GMCSF. In column 6, the ratio “P” is Treatment P/control. In column 7, the ratio “H” is Treatment H/control. In column 9, “Type” is the chemokine type. In column 10, “α-Type” is the type of α chemokine.

TABLE 4 Same data as shown in Table 3 but ranked according to the expression levels after treatment with PGE + GMCSF. Rank Gene code Control Treatment “P” Treatment “H” Ratio “P” Ratio “H” Gene Type α-Type 1 hCG15465.3 30966 1741317 1486169 56.2 48.0 Calgranulin B 2 hCG16365.2 1535 1074816 841633 700.4 548.4 Pro-PBP (CXCL7; NAP-2) alpha ELR+ 3 hCG29298.3 6847 1063685 1350173 155.4 197.2 CCL2 (MCP-1) beta 4 hCG1743776.3 6885 794219 697255 115.4 101.3 Calgranulin A (S100A8) 5 hCG41471.2 1686 750104 710894 445.0 421.7 MMP1 6 hCG16263.2 3317 404895 688215 122.1 207.5 IL-1Beta 7 hCG16372.3 1687 221659 509116 131.4 301.8 CXCL8 alpha ELR+ 8 hCG1748235.2 1722 178566 166816 103.7 96.9 CCL4 MIP 1bta beta 9 hCG2039077 336 140580 73517 418.8 219.0 AF086204-1 - unassigned 10 hCG1749202.1 1595 128682 168075 80.7 105.4 CCL3 beta 11 hCG1749202.1 1873 114829 144856 61.3 77.3 CCL3 beta 12 hCG45292.2 1566 114615 420325 73.2 268.4 CD14 13 hCG16361.2 1929 111484 139955 57.8 72.6 CXCL2 alpha ELR+ 14 hCG1653946.3 1445 111172 53305 76.9 36.9 KIR3DL2 15 hCG27362.3 1948 108526 100746 55.7 51.7 OASL 16 hCG2039724.1 668 97343 46261 145.8 69.3 MHC-1 17 hCG26002.2 1605 86823 291778 54.1 181.8 IER3 (immediate early response) 18 hCG39885.3 681 81732 117266 120.1 172.3 COX-2 19 hCG1775764.2 1012 72187 65044 71.4 64.3 C5R1 20 hCG29304.2 586 66039 43517 112.6 74.2 CCL7 beta 21 hCG14693.4 521 57424 49126 110.2 94.2 IgGFcRec 22 hCG15468.3 465 44929 18742 96.6 40.3 Calgranulin C 23 hCG26571.3 176 42252 32861 240.5 187.0 EPM-protein 1 24 hCG29301.2 481 36861 51160 76.7 106.4 CCL8 beta 25 hCG38806.4 419 36100 29363 86.2 70.1 ATP6VOD2 26 hCG16366.3 244 33072 57966 135.5 237.5 CXCL3 alpha ELR+ 27 hCG1685968.2 457 32015 36514 70.1 79.9 FAP 28 hCG1773845.2 444 26799 31618 60.3 71.2 CLECSF12 29 hCG41965.2 293 24310 74172 82.9 252.9 TNFAIP6 30 hCG20766.3 282 20445 15154 72.5 53.8 ZPF36L1 31 hCG91957.2 214 16722 20206 78.2 94.5 FPR1 32 hCG1805714.2 139 13598 13632 98.1 98.4 IFIT

TABLE 5 Upregulated differentially expressed genes in ML1 cells treated with human seminal plasma and GMCSF. All genes listed have a B value (log of odds that gene is differentially expressed) between 16 and 4. Genes are ranked by log (base 2) fold increase over control (=M). Chemokines are in bold. Rank Gene code M value Gene_Symbol Gene_name 1 hCG16365.2 8.93385091 PPBP pro-platelet basic protein (chemokine (C—X—C motif) ligand 7) 2 hCG41471.2 8.604634256 MMP1 matrix metalloproteinase 1 (interstitial collagenase) 3 hCG28054.3 7.963598618 TDO2 tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase 4 hCG16372.3 7.944683552 IL8 interleukin 8 5 hCG45292.2 7.937987537 CD14 CD14 antigen 6 hCG29298.3 7.815216428 CCL2 chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 7 hCG16263.2 7.701122934 IL1B interleukin 1, beta 8 hCG26002.2 7.18274869 IER3 immediate early response 3 9 hCG41965.2 6.770179641 TNFAIP6 tumor necrosis factor, alpha-induced protein 6 10 hCG1743776.3 6.751260279 S100A8 S100 calcium binding protein A8 (calgranulin A) 11 hCG1749202.1 6.493376565 MGC12815; chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 3-like, centromeric; chemokine (C-C motif) CCL3L1; CCL3 12 hCG1748235.2 6.487151346 CCL4L; chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4-like; chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4-like 1, CCL4L1; CCL4 13 hCG16366.3 6.439762592 CXCL3 chemokine (C—X—C motif) ligand 3 14 hCG1749202.1 6.133980403 MGC12815; chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 3-like, centromeric; chemokine (C-C motif) CCL3L1; ligand 3-like 1 CCL3 15 hCG16361.2 6.054330528 CXCL2 chemokine (C—X—C motif) ligand 2 16 hCG15465.3 5.832844199 S100A9 S100 calcium binding protein A9 (calgranulin B) 17 hCG29301.2 5.829427864 CCL8 chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 8 18 hCG38536.2 5.764711686 OAS2 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase 2, 69/71 kDa 19 hCG1775764.2 5.690958588 C5R1 complement component 5 receptor 1 (C5a ligand) 20 hCG24571.4 5.689657206 IFIT1 interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 1 21 hCG26571.3 5.65314799 EMP1 epithelial membrane protein 1 22 hCG27362.3 5.597280752 OASL 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase-like 23 hCG37146.3 5.549826612 MAFB v-maf musculoaponeurotic fibrosarcoma oncogene homolog B (avian) 24 hCG2039724.1 5.547287913 KIR2DL4 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, two domains, long cytoplasmic tail, 4 25 hCG29304.2 5.540329937 CCL7 chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 7 26 hCG1685968.2 5.486323192 FAP fibroblast activation protein, alpha 27 hCG1811532.1 5.476198695 CYBB cytochrome b-245, beta polypeptide (chronic granulomatous disease) 28 NM_000265.1 5.419070991 NCF1 neutrophil cytosolic factor 1 (47 kDa, chronic granulomatous disease, autosomal 1) 29 hCG40406.4 5.301003464 MS4A4A membrane-spanning 4-domains, subfamily A, member 4 30 hCG1773845.2 5.258973039 CLECSF12 C-type (calcium dependent, carbohydrate-recognition domain) lectin, superfamily member 12 31 hCG38806.4 5.249174911 ATP6V0D2 ATPase, H+ transporting, lysosomal 38 kDa, V0 subunit d isoform 2 32 hCG401128.3 5.231473543 SAMSN1 SAM domain, SH3 domain and nuclear localisation signals, 1 33 hCG40366.2 5.201651243 OAS1 2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase 1, 40/46 kDa 34 hCG40366.2 5.188249726 OAS1 2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase 1, 40/46 kDa 35 hCG1771418.1 5.157927748 G1P2 interferon, alpha-inducible protein (clone IFI-15K) 36 hCG32604.3 5.08977752 CCL15; chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 15; chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 14 CCL14 37 hCG32869.2 5.079225507 TREM1 triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 38 hCG91957.2 5.043339643 FPR1 formyl peptide receptor 1 39 hCG1653946.3 5.036744379 KIR3DL2 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, three domains, long cytoplasmic tail, 2 40 hCG17305.3 5.01312062 ANXA1 annexin A1 41 hCG1643352.4 4.957035039 IFIT2 interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 2 42 hCG23054.3 4.936901531 C3 complement component 3 43 hCG21858.3 4.711525699 EMR1 egf-like module containing, mucin-like, hormone receptor-like 1 44 hCG24570.3 4.709879318 IFIT4 interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 4 45 hCG28814.2 4.703448877 AGRP agouti related protein homolog (mouse) 46 hCG17885.3 4.683694276 SAT spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase

TABLE 6 Upregulated differentially expressed genes in ML1 cells treated with PGE and GMCSF. All genes listed have a B value (log of odds that gene is differentially expressed) between 16 and 4. Genes are ranked by log (base 2) fold increase over control (=M). Chemokines are in bold. Rank Gene ID M Gene_Symbol Gene_name 1 hCG16365.2 9.116667998 PPBP pro-platelet basic protein (chemokine (C—X—C motif) ligand 7) 2 hCG41471.2 8.498953633 MMP1 matrix metalloproteinase 1 (interstitial collagenase) 3 hCG29298.3 7.277272275 CCL2 chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 4 hCG1743776.3 6.839847289 S100A8 S100 calcium binding protein A8 (calgranulin A) 5 hCG16263.2 6.818705295 IL1B interleukin 1, beta 6 hCG2039724.1 6.440423681 KIR2DL4 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, two domains, long cytoplasmic tail, 4 7 hCG1748235.2 6.40982755 CCL4L; chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4-like, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4 CCL4L1; CCL4 8 hCG1749202.1 6.015476593 MGC12815; chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 3-like, centromeric; CCL3L1; chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 3 CCL3 9 hCG29304.2 5.967129184 CCL7 chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 7 10 hCG1653946.3 5.921964763 KIR3DL2 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, three domains, long cytoplasmic tail, 2 11 hCG45292.2 5.90135795 CD14 CD14 antigen 12 hCG15465.3 5.884393418 S100A9 S100 calcium binding protein A9 (calgranulin B) 13 hCG1749202.1 5.678203475 MGC12815; chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 3-like, centromeric; chemokine CCL3L1; (C-C motif) ligand 3 CCL3 14 hCG1775764.2 5.64642221 C5R1 complement component 5 receptor 1 (C5a ligand) 15 hCG15468.3 5.603871529 S100A12 S100 calcium binding protein A12 (calgranulin C) 16 hCG16361.2 5.599895712 CXCL2 chemokine (C—X—C motif) ligand 2 17 hCG27362.3 5.557018766 OASL 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase-like 18 hCG16366.3 5.519024088 CXCL3 chemokine (C—X—C motif) ligand 3 19 hCG24571.4 5.408109813 IFIT1 interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 1 20 hCG37146.3 5.372415096 MAFB v-maf musculoaponeurotic fibrosarcoma oncogene homolog B (avian) 21 hCG38806.4 5.348661832 ATP6V0D2 ATPase, H+ transporting, lysosomal 38 kDa, V0 subunit d isoform 2 22 hCG29301.2 5.296640273 CCL8 chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 8 23 hCG38536.2 5.196696132 OAS2 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase 2, 69/71 kDa 24 hCG401128.3 5.187529179 SAMSN1 SAM domain, SH3 domain and nuclear localisation signals, 1 25 hCG1685968.2 5.112451655 FAP fibroblast activation protein, alpha 26 hCG32604.3 4.993856247 CCL15; CCL14 chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 15; chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 14 27 hCG41965.2 4.982568671 TNFAIP6 tumor necrosis factor, alpha-induced protein 6 28 hCG40366.2 4.930633164 OAS1 2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase 1, 40/46 kDa 29 NM_000265.1 4.91148143 NCF1 neutrophil cytosolic factor 1 (47 kDa, chronic granulomatous disease, autosomal 1) 30 hCG1773845.2 4.886076247 CLECSF12 C-type (calcium dependent, carbohydrate-recognition domain) lectin, superfamily member 12 31 hCG40366.2 4.870129729 OAS1 2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase 1, 40/46 kDa 32 hCG20766.3 4.785519943 ZFP36L1 zinc finger protein 36, C3H type-like 1 33 hCG1643352.4 4.774203837 IFIT2 interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 2 34 hCG21858.3 4.749666067 EMR1 egf-like module containing, mucin-like, hormone receptor-like 1 35 hCG17305.3 4.702785336 ANXA1 annexin A1 36 hCG1771418.1 4.690391105 G1P2 interferon, alpha-inducible protein (clone IFI-15K) 37 hCG91957.2 4.621356993 FPR1 formyl peptide receptor 1 38 hCG28054.3 4.580307838 TDO2 tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase 39 hCG23989.3 4.51872897 ADM adrenomedullin 40 hCG2039725.1 4.467516336 KIR3DL1 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, three domains, long cytoplasmic tail, 1 41 hCG22355.3 4.381229804 FOS v-fos FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homolog 42 hCG17885.3 4.363580937 SAT spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase 43 hCG1640186.3 4.338650651 PSCDBP pleckstrin homology, Sec7 and coiled-coil domains, binding protein 44 hCG40015.3 4.310876817 MMP9 matrix metalloproteinase 9 (gelatinase B, 92 kDa gelatinase, 92 kDa type IV collagenase) 45 hCG20262.3 4.274571734 FCAR Fc fragment of IgA, receptor for 46 hCG2043692 4.191289942 LILRA3 leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptor, subfamily A (without TM domain), member 3 47 hCG15367.4 4.132148241 CDKN1A cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A (p21, Cip1) 48 hCG1641561.3 4.108763818 LOC129607 hypothetical protein LOC129607 49 hCG1811781.1 4.091544629 DDX58 DEAD (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp) box polypeptide 58 50 hCG1818087.1 4.083365328 GPR34 G protein-coupled receptor 34 51 hCG1812154.1 4.078776584 SLC7A7 solute carrier family 7 (cationic amino acid transporter, y+ system), member 7 52 hCG2039461 4.061719891 PILRA paired immunoglobin-like type 2 receptor alpha 53 hCG16367.1 4.025258186 PF4 platelet factor 4 (chemokine (C—X—C motif) ligand 4)

TABLE 7 Pathways in which upregulated differentially expressed genes in ML1 cells are implicated, for treatment 1 vs control, treatment 2 vs control and treatment 1 vs treatment 2. DEGs upregulated in Treatment 1 vs. Pathway control, p-values Inflammation mediated by chemokine and cytokine signaling pathway 1.99E−14 Alzheimer disease-presenilin pathway 1.61E−06 Integrin signalling pathway 2.68E−05 Plasminogen activating cascade 1.30E−04 Notch signaling pathway 1.96E−04 Angiogenesis 2.79E−04 Interleukin signaling pathway 3.37E−04 B cell activation 3.31E−03 Heterotrimeric G-protein signaling pathway-Gq alpha and Go alpha mediated pathway 3.46E−03 Axon guidance mediated by semaphorins 3.89E−03 Apoptosis signaling pathway 4.26E−03 T cell activation 8.87E−03 Interferon-gamma signaling pathway 9.10E−03 DEGs upregulated in Treatment 2 vs. Pathway control, p-values Inflammation mediated by chemokine and cytokine signaling pathway 2.78E−17 Alzheimer disease-presenilin pathway 1.04E−06 Angiogenesis 4.44E−05 Plasminogen activating cascade 5.80E−05 Interleukin signaling pathway 1.17E−04 Integrin signalling pathway 1.76E−04 Blood coagulation 9.90E−04 Axon guidance mediated by semaphorins 1.10E−03 Notch signaling pathway 1.25E−03 Heterotrimeric G-protein signaling pathway-Gq alpha and Go alpha mediated pathway 1.51E−03 Apoptosis signaling pathway 4.01E−03 Interferon-gamma signaling pathway 5.40E−03 JAK/STAT signaling pathway 6.07E−03 T cell activation 6.93E−03 Heterotrimeric G-protein signaling pathway-Gi alpha and Gs alpha mediated pathway 8.79E−03 DEGs upregulated in Treatment 2 vs. Pathway Treatment1, p-values Inflammation mediated by chemokine and cytokine signaling pathway 7.05E−04 

1. A method of promoting healing of a wound in a patient, the method comprising administering to the patient (i) a prostaglandin E (PGE) or an agonist thereof and/or an agent which increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GMCSF) or a derivative thereof, wherein the method does not include administering a skin stem cell to the patient.
 2. A method according to claim 1 wherein the PGE or agonist thereof or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE is any one of PGE₁, PGE₂, 19-hydroxy PGE₁, 19-hydroxy PGE₂, 16,16-dimethyl PGE, dinoprostone, misoprostol, alprostadil and limaprost, and wherein the agent that increases the local concentration of PGE is epidermal growth factor (EGF) or a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonist.
 3. A method according to claim 1 wherein the GMCSF is human GMCSF having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2, or a naturally occurring variant thereof.
 4. A method according to claim 1 or wherein the GMCSF is sargramostim or molgramostim.
 5. A method according to claim 1 wherein one or both of (i) the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) the GMCSF or derivative thereof are administered locally to the patient at the site of the wound.
 6. A method according to claim 5 wherein both (i) the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) the GMCSF or derivative thereof are administered locally to the patient at the site of the wound.
 7. A method according to claim 1 further comprising administering at least one antimicrobial agent to the patient.
 8. A method according to claim 7 wherein the antimicrobial agent is an antibacterial agent, an antifungal agent or an antiviral agent.
 9. A method according to claim 8 wherein the antibacterial agent is selected from gentamicin, ampicillin, benzypenicillin, benethamine penicillin, benzathine penicillin, phenethicillin, phenoxy-methyl penicillin, procaine penicillin, cloxacillin, flucloxacillin, methicillin sodium, amoxicillin, bacampicillin hydrochloride, ciclacillin, mezlocillin, pivampicillin, talampicillin hydrochloride, carfecillin sodium, piperacillin, ticarcillin, mecillinam, pirmecillinan, cefaclor, cefadroxil, cefotaxime, cefoxitin, cefsulodin sodium, ceftazidime, ceftizoxime, cefuroxime, cephalexin, cephalothin, cephamandole, cephazolin, cephradine, cefpirome, latamoxef disodium, aztreonam, glycylcyclines, chlortetracycline hydrochloride, clomocycline sodium, demeclocydine hydrochloride, doxycycline, lymecycline, minocycline, oxytetracycline, amikacin, framycetin sulphate, neomycin sulphate, netilmicin, tobramycin, colistin, sodium fusidate, fupirocin, polymyxin B sulphate, spectinomycin, vancomycin, teicoplanin, calcium sulphaloxate, sulphametopyrazine, sulphadiazine, sulphadimidine, sulphaguanidine, sulphaurea, capreomycin, metronidazole, tinidazole, cinoxacin, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, nitrofurantoin, hexamine, streptomycin, carbenicillin, colistimethate, polymyxin B, furazolidone, nalidixic acid, trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole, clindamycin, lincomycin, cycloserine, isoniazid, ethambutol, ethionamide, pyrazinamide, meropenem and imipenem.
 10. A method according to claim 8 wherein the antifungal agent is selected from miconazole, ketoconazole, itraconazole, fluconazole, amphotericin, flucytosine, griseofulvin, natamycin and nystatin.
 11. A method according to claim 8 wherein the antiviral agent is selected from acyclovir, AZT, ddI, amantadine hydrochloride, inosine pranobex and vidarabine.
 12. A method according to claim 7 wherein the antimicrobial agent is administered locally to the patient at the site of the wound.
 13. A method according to claim 1 further comprising administering an analgesic agent or an anesthetic agent locally to the patient at the site of the wound.
 14. A method according to claim 13 wherein the analgesic agent is selected from methylsalicylate, salicylic acid, dyclonine and aloe vera.
 15. A method according to claim 13 wherein the anesthetic is selected from benzocaine, lidocaine, xylocaine and butamben picrate.
 16. A method according to claim 1 for healing an internal surgical wound.
 17. A method according to claim 1 for healing an external wound.
 18. A method according to claim 17 further comprising administering a skin permeability enhancer locally to the patient at the site of the wound.
 19. A method according to claim 18 wherein the skin permeability enhancer is DMSO.
 20. A method according to claim 1 wherein one or more of the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, GMCSF or derivative thereof, antimicrobial agent, analgesic agent, anesthetic agent and skin permeability enhancer is administered by topical administration in the form of a gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray.
 21. A method according to claim 1 wherein one or more of the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, GMCSF or derivative thereof, antimicrobial agent, analgesic agent, anesthetic agent and skin permeability enhancer is administered by topical administration in the form of a tissue sealant.
 22. A method according to claim 1 wherein one or more of the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, GMCSF or derivative thereof, antimicrobial agent, analgesic agent, anesthetic agent and skin permeability enhancer is administered in the form of a wound dressing or bandage.
 23. A method according to claim 1 wherein one or more of the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, GMCSF or derivative thereof, antimicrobial agent, analgesic agent, anesthetic agent and skin permeability enhancer is administered by injection.
 24. A method according to claim 1 wherein any two or more of the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, GMCSF or derivative thereof, antimicrobial agent, analgesic agent, anesthetic agent and skin permeability enhancer are administered simultaneously.
 25. A method according to claim 1 wherein both (i) the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) the GMCSF or derivative thereof are administered by the same route of administration.
 26. A method according to claim 1 wherein the wound is an ulcer or gastrointestinal damage associated with Crohn's disease.
 27. A method according to claim 26 wherein one or more of the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, the GMCSF or derivative thereof, and an antimicrobial agent is administered orally.
 28. A method according to claim 26 wherein one or more of the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, the GMCSF or derivative thereof, and an antimicrobial agent is administered as a suppository or capsule.
 29. A method according to claim 28 wherein the suppository or capsule has an enteric coating for release of the one or more of the PGE or agonist thereof and/or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, the GMCSF or derivative thereof, and the antimicrobial agent, in the bowel of the patient. 30-54. (canceled)
 55. A wound dressing, bandage, or tissue sealant composition comprising (i) a PGE or an agonist thereof and/or an agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof, and which does not comprise a skin stem cell.
 56. A wound dressing, bandage, or tissue sealant composition according to claim 55 wherein the PGE or agonist thereof or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE is any one of PGE₁, PGE₂, 19-hydroxy PGE₁, 19-hydroxy PGE₂, 16,16-dimethyl PGE, dinoprostone, misoprostol, alprostadil and limaprost, and wherein the agent that increases the local concentration of PGE is epidermal growth factor (EGF) or a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonist.
 57. A wound dressing, bandage, or tissue sealant composition according to claim 55 wherein the GMCSF or derivative thereof is human GMCSF having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 or a naturally occurring variant thereof sargramostim, or molgramostim
 58. A wound dressing, bandage, or tissue sealant composition according to claim 55 further comprising an antimicrobial agent.
 59. A wound dressing, bandage, or tissue sealant composition according to claim 58 wherein the antimicrobial agent is an antibacterial agent an antifungal agent or an antiviral agent.
 60. A wound dressing, bandage, or tissue sealant composition according to claim 55 further comprising an analgesic agent or an anesthetic agent.
 61. A wound dressing, bandage, or tissue sealant composition according to claim 60 wherein the analgesic agent is selected from methylsalicylate, salicylic acid, dyclonine and aloe vera, and the anesthetic agent is selected from benzocaine, lidocaine, xylocaine and butamben picrate.
 62. A wound dressing or tissue sealant composition according to claim 55 suitable for application to an internal surgical wound.
 63. A wound dressing, bandage, or tissue sealant composition according to claim 55 further comprising a skin permeability enhancer.
 64. A wound dressing, bandage, or tissue sealant composition according to claim 63 wherein the skin permeability enhancer is DMSO.
 65. A wound dressing, bandage, or tissue sealant composition according to claim 55 suitable for application to an external wound.
 66. A tissue sealant composition according to claim 55 wherein the tissue sealant comprises a fibrin glue.
 67. A gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray comprising (i) a PGE or an agonist thereof and/or an agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE, (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof, and (iii) at least one antimicrobial agent, analgesic agent or anesthetic agent, and which does not comprise a skin stem cell.
 68. A gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray according to claim 67 wherein the PGE or agonist thereof or the agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE is any one of PGE₁, PGE₂, 19-hydroxy PGE₁, 19-hydroxy PGE₂, 16,16-dimethyl PGE, dinoprostone, misoprostol, alprostadil and limaprost, and wherein the agent that increases the local concentration of PGE is epidermal growth factor (EGF) or a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonist.
 69. A gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray according to claim 67 wherein the GMCSF or derivative thereof is human GMCSF having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 or a naturally occurring variant thereof, sargramostim, or molgramostim.
 70. A gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray according to claim 67 wherein the antimicrobial agent is an antibacterial agent an antifungal agent or an antiviral agent
 71. A gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray according to claim 67 wherein the analgesic agent is selected from methylsalicylate, salicylic acid, dyclonine and aloe vera, and the anesthetic agent is selected from benzocaine, lidocaine, xylocaine and butamben picrate.
 72. A gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray according to claim 67 suitable for application to an internal surgical wound.
 73. A gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray according to claim 67 further comprising a skin permeability enhancer.
 74. A gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray according to claim 73 wherein the skin permeability enhancer is DMSO.
 75. A gel, cream, lotion, paste or spray according to claim 67 suitable for application to an external wound.
 76. A method of stimulating or enhancing expression of CXCL8 (IL-8), CCL2 (MCP-1), and PBP in cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage in vivo comprising administering to the cells (i) a PGE or agonist thereof and/or an agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof, wherein the method does not include administering a skin stem cell to cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage.
 77. A method of stimulating or enhancing secretion of CXCL8, CCL2, and CXCL7 (NAP-2) from cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage in vivo comprising administering to the cells (i) a PGE or agonist thereof and/or an agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof, wherein the method does not include administering a skin stem cell to cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage.
 78. A method of stimulating or enhancing expression of CXCL8 (IL-8), CCL2 (MCP-1), and PBP in cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage in vitro comprising administering to the cells (i) a PGE or agonist thereof and/or an agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof.
 79. A method of stimulating or enhancing secretion of CXCL8, CCL2, and CXCL7 (NAP-2) from cells of the macrophage/monocyte lineage in vitro comprising administering to the cells (i) a PGE or agonist thereof and/or an agent that increases the local concentration or effect of PGE and (ii) GMCSF or a derivative thereof. 80-81. (canceled) 